African Wild Dogs Nutrition

Diets for African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Nutritional Management Guidelines, 1999

Linda Pribyl, MS, RD and Sue Crissey, Ph.D.

Zoo Nutrition Services, Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, Illinois

Reviewed by the AZA Nutrition Advisory Group

Cite Reference:

Pribyl, L. and S. Crissey (1999) Diets for African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) – management

guidelines. In: African Wild Dog SSP - Husbandry Manual. American Association of Zoos and

Aquariums

Meeting the nutritional needs of African wild dogs is essential if they are to survive and

reproduce in captivity. It is appropriate that animals in captivity are offered the diet that best

matches their nutrient requirements. African wild dogs are one of the least typical canids in that

they are reported to be exclusively carnivorous (Creel, 1995). They are nomadic animals that

rely on communal hunting techniques to secure enough food for all members of the pack

(Fanshawe, 1993). Feeding ecology information, along with published nutrient requirement data

(which includes domestic dog and cat requirements), foods available to zoos, food preferences

and palatability information have been utilized in developing appropriate dietary guidelines.

Feeding Ecology Data

African wild dogs hunt for food daily, usually at dusk and dawn. Free-ranging wild dogs live

and hunt in packs composed of 2-50 animals, with all of the males being related to each other,

and all of the females related, but each family originating from a different pack (Fanshawe,

1993). Wild dogs have a complex social structure that relies on team cooperation for survival.

Pack size, including pups, is extremely variable. All members of the pack help feed the mother

and her pups, which stay in the den for two to three weeks after birth.

Wild dogs are coursing predators that do not select their prey until after the chase has begun.

The dogs are known for their ability to run long distances at speeds of up to 50 km/hr. Prey

usually is selected from species that are most abundant for the hunting area and can include

Thomson’s gazelles, wildebeest, reedbuck, impala, and duiker. Among these prey, wild dogs

tend to chose older or younger animals who are slower and easier to catch. The dogs work as a

team to take the animal down and begin disemboweling it. All members present share the kill,

with the dominant members of the pack obtaining more food. Older or lame dogs that cannot

hunt for themselves are fed by pack members that regurgitate food after returning from a kill

(Kruuk, 1967).

African wild dog packs also work together to defend their kills from other carnivores. Hyenas

and wolves appear to be the most competitive. The scavengers, depending on their number and

pack size, usually have to wait until the dog pack is finished with their meal before beginning

theirs (Fanshawe, 1993). Only on rare occasions do African wild dogs actually scavenge

themselves. It has been reported that in the wild, dogs kill between 1 – 4 animals per day,

depending on pack size and prey availability (Fuller, 1990). In a study conducted by Fuller et al.

(1990) in southwestern Kenya during July-August, 1989, the biomass (kg whole weight of prey)

of prey ranged between 15.7 kg for 40 gazelles and 64.6 kg for 5 wildebeests.

Published Nutrient Requirement Data

There are no specific nutrient requirement data available for African wild dogs. Nutrient

requirement data are available, however, for domestic dogs and cats (NRC dogs, 1974, 1985, and

NRC cats, 1986). When evaluating the nutrient requirements for African wild dogs, it is

important to examine several factors. Taxonomically, African wild dogs are canids, of which

many are considered omnivores, as is the domestic dog (Legrand-Defretin, 1993). However,

because of the carnivorous nature of the wild dog, the nutritional requirements for domestic cats,

which are considered obligate carnivores, also should be considered. It was originally thought

that dogs and cats have similar nutritional needs, however, it has become apparent that there are

fundamental differences in their nutritional requirements. For example, it is thought that cats

have a distinct need for both vitamin A and taurine (Legrand-Defretin, 1993). These same

distinct requirements have not been proven in domestic dogs. Because the African wild dog is a

canid but appears to consume a strictly carnivorous diet, the nutrient values for the African wild

dog diet presented in this section are based on the range of nutrient requirements for dogs, all

stages, and growing cats as described by the National Research Council, the Waltham Center for

Pet Nutrition and the Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc. (NRC dogs, 1974,

1985, NRC cats, 1986, Legrand-Defretin, 1993 and AAFCO, 1994).

Food Available to Zoos

Information on the types of food available to zoos feeding African wild dogs in captivity is

important however, the primary concern must be to ensure that the quantity of nutrients

consumed is appropriate for successful maintenance and reproduction of the wild dog. Both the

number and type of prey species available to the captive animal are artificially limited so that the

animal will never have the selection that would be available under free-ranging conditions, nor

will they be able to hunt over long ranges to procure food. Activity will affect consumption

through energy needs. As wild animals must travel and hunt to a significant extent, captive

animals that do not, may have decreased energy demands. An African wild dog in its native

setting will expend significantly more energy hunting and running at top speeds across huge

expanses of land to catch their prey than a captive wild dog that does not hunt for its food.

Additionally, not all food consumed is digested or utilized by the animal (Legrand-Defretin,

1993). Research on the ideal nutrient profile for an African wild dog diet, either in the wild or in

captivity is unavailable. Free-ranging wild dogs’ diets depend on pack size and food availability.

Table 1 (Fuller, 1990) summarizes the few studies that have been conducted on the quantities of

free-ranging prey consumption by African wild dogs. However, there is no nutrient composition

information available for the individual prey items.

Table 1. Mean per capita consumption rate estimates for packs of wild dogs studied in East Africa

Pack Composition: # of days Consumption rate for adults

Study Adults Pups monitored kg prey/dog/day kg prey/kg/dog/day

Schaller (1972) 7-16 5 1.2 0.05

Fuller (1993) 19-29 20 1.7 0.07

Frame & Frame (1981) 8 5 1.8 0.08

Estes & Goddard (1967) 12-21 8 1.6 0.07

Malcolm (1979) 8 ? 4 2.0 0.09

Wright (1960) 2 4 - - 0.15

Malcolm (1979) 8 11 18 3.0 0.15

Estes & Goddard (1967) 6-7 3 3.7 0.16

Kuhme (1965) 8 15 - 4.5 0.20

Schaller (1972) 11 14 20 5.4 0.24

Malcolm (1979 15 11 10 5.9 0.26

SOURCE: Fuller, T.K. & Kat, P.W., Afr. J. Ecol. 28, 1990.

Approximately 60% of whole weight of prey killed.

Assumes mean wild dog weight of 23 kg.

Rate for all pack members.

As Table 1 indicates, free-ranging African wild dogs consume between 1.2 to 5.9 kg prey/adult

dog/day. This does not account for the approximately 1.0 kg of food each adult dog may

regurgitate after a full meal for other members of the pack (Fuller, 1990). The lower food

consumptions were found in areas where food was scarce or there were large numbers of dogs in

a pack. The highest consumption rates were found with large litters and where prey was

abundant. It has been estimated that wild dogs have a stomach capacity of 9 kg of food (Creel,

1995). Findings from this study indicate that intake of wild dogs is similar to that of other pack-

hunting carnivores like wolves and hyenas (Fuller, 1990).

Food Preference

While the food items offered to captive wild dogs may not be the same as those available in the

wild, zoos can do much to provide palatable foods. As discussed earlier, African wild dogs often

prey upon species that are most abundant in the hunting area and not necessarily the most

preferred. There also may be differences in food choice based on physiological condition (for

example a lactating female) and day to day fluctuations in food consumed may vary

dramatically.

In captivity, the food items offered to African wild dogs are limited in type and variety to what is

available commercially. An animal that is offered a variety of succulent food items will not

necessarily select those items needed based on its nutrient content. Instead, animals may select

items based on sugar content, fat content, and even novelty. Thus, it is important to offer foods

that compliment each other nutritionally while providing the foods in a number of different

forms.

A survey of African wild dog feeding protocols was conducted in August, 1996 by Brookfield

Zoo for 14 institutions holding a total of 25 dogs. Results from the survey are found in Table 2.

Thirteen of the zoos fed their dogs once a day with two zoo that feed twice a day. All dogs were

fed separately with the exception of two zoos that fed males together and females together. Most

zoos offered similar quantities and type of food. The basic diet was between 1-1.36 kg of a

nutritionally complete, raw meat-based canine diet per animal per day. One zoo offered a

nutritionally complete raw meat-based feline diet with dry dog kibble. Some zoos fed dry dog

kibble in addition to the regular meat-based diet. All zoos surveyed offered either knuckle,

horse, beef, or oxtail bones at least 1-2 times per week in addition to the regular feedings.

Occasionally, most dogs received a variety of whole prey that included fetal calves, chicks,

rabbits, rats, mice, or deer carcasses. One institution fed their 2 animals dry dog kibble, 3-4 hard

boiled eggs and a nutritionally complete raw meat-based carnivore diet. One zoo supplemented

the diet of their 2 dogs with 10 g each of D-Ca-Fos and Vionate daily. Responses from the zoos

indicated that all dogs found these diets acceptable and consumed 100% most of the time.

One zoo experienced problems with loose stools when 3.3 wild dogs arrived from Africa which

were raised on and reportedly doing well consuming 100% dry kibble. The zoo here in the

United States found that all dogs had severe diarrhea on the dry diet alone. After experimenting

with different dry foods, the zoo ultimately switched to a meat-based diet with dry kibble and

found considerable improvements in the dog’s stools (Toddes, pers. comm.)

Table 2. Survey of African Wild Dog Feeding Protocols

African Wild Dog Feeding Protocols

Institution Daily (per dog) Occasionally: Sex/# Age

Dry Kibble Raw Meat

Base

454 g

454g canine

Bones

2.1

3,3.6

1.14 kg. canine

1X/week: beef leg bone only

1X/week: fetal calves

blood pops (meat + blood)

2.0

10,10

113 g lite

or HiPro

680 g feline

2X/week: Oxtail bones

2.0

5, 5

1.36 kg canine

1X/week: 1 horse knuckle bone

0.1

908 g canine

5X/week: 2 beef rib/femur bones

2.0

3, 3

908 g canine

1Xweek: beef femur bone

3.0

2,2,2

45 g

680 g canine

*fed 2X daily (340 g X 2)

2.0

8,8

1.13 kg feline

Daily: 3 chicks

2.0

12, 12

1.13 kg. canine

rabbits, rats, mice or deer carcass

1X/week: oxtail bone

N/A

1.13 kg. canine

1X week: beef bones

1.1

5.3

1.13 kg canine

M: horse bone, 1 rat, 1 rabbit (instead

of canine)

2.1

9, 9.7

1.13-1.36 kg

canine

2X/week: knuckle bone

0.1

1.36 kg

227 g canine

whole rat

Daily: 3-4 hard boiled eggs

2.0

3,3

1.13 kg canine

1X/week: shank bone only (no canine)

3X/week: beef bones

2.2

8,8

2,2

Using NRC and Waltham Center for Pet Nutrition guidelines for both cats and dogs, the AAFCO

Nutrient Profiles for Dog Foods, along with data on feeding ecology and nutrient content of food

items fed at zoos, it is possible to formulate appropriate diets for captive African wild dogs

(NRC dogs, 1974, 1985 and NRC cats, 1986, Legrand-Defretin, 1993 AAFCO, 1994). When

formulating the diets, flexibility is needed to account for animal preferences, weight, exercise,

physical condition, environment, stage of growth, and behavioral considerations as well as food

availability. Thus it is appropriate to set guidelines for nutrient content and food categories

rather than recommending specific food items in set quantities.

Captive African Wild Dog Management Guidelines

Diet Recommendations, 1999

Given the aforementioned data, target nutrient levels can be suggested. These should be

considered target nutrient levels until more specific nutrient levels can be defined. Levels are

expressed in quantity per unit of diet on a dry matter basis. Meeting the highest level should

provide adequately for the needs of a canine carnivore.

NUTRIENT DOGS* (all stages) CATS*(growing) AAFCO**(adult)

Energy (Kcal/g) 3.75 5 3.5

Crude Protein (%) 22 24 18

Fat (%) 5 - 5

Fiber (%) - - -

Linoleic Acid (%) 1 .5 1

Arachidonic Acid (%) - .020 -

Vitamin A (IU/g) 5 3.33 5

Vitamin D (IU/g) .5 .5 .5

Vitamin E (mg/kg) 50 30

Thiamin (mg/kg) 1 5 1

Riboflavin (mg/kg) 2.2 4 2.2

Niacin (mg/kg) 11.4 40 11.4

Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 1 4 1.0

Folacin (mg/kg) .18 .80 .18

Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) .02 .02 .02

Pantothenic Acid (mg/kg) 10 5 10

Choline (mg/kg) 1200 2400 2400

Biotin (mg/kg) .10 .07 -

Vitamin C (mg/kg) - - -

Calcium (%) 1.1 .8 .6

Phosphorous (%) .90 .60 .5

Magnesium (%) .04 .04 .04

Potassium (%) .60 .40 .6

Sodium (%) - .05 .06

Iron (mg/kg) 60 80 80

Zinc (mg/kg) 50 50 120

Copper (mg/kg) 7.3 5 7.3

Manganese (mg/kg) 5 5 5

Selenium (mg/kg) .11 .10 .11

Iodine (mg/kg) 1.54 .35 1.5

*The guidelines are a range using published literature from the National Research Council Requirements

(dogs, 1974, 1985, cats, 1986) and Waltham Center for Pet Nutrition (1993) (Legrand-Defretin) for both

domestic cats and dogs.

- No NRC requirement stated for this nutrient. This does not mean there is no requirement, just that

studies have not been performed.

**Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc. These guidelines are adult maintenance

minimums.

These nutrient values for growing cats and all stages of dogs are either known to be minimum

requirements or values that are adequate for maintenance (Legrand-Defretin, 1993). Because

each animal differs by breed and species, it is difficult to make generalizations about specific

requirements for either cats or dogs. Table 3 compares the range of nutrient requirements for

cats and dogs with the analysis of several diets offered to captive African wild dogs in zoos

around the country.

Table 3. African wild dog diet analysis:

Nutrient

Target Nutrient

Levels

100% Meat-

Based Canine

100% Meat-

Based Feline

Feline & Dry

Dog Kibble

86/14*

100% Dry

Dog Kibble

100% Commercial

Canned Cat Food

100%

Commercial Dry

Cat Food

Energy (Kcal/g) 3.5-5

Crude Protein (%) 18-24 61 50 44 30 40 34

Fat (%) 5 23 32 26 11 20 9

Fiber (%) - 5 4 4 5 4 5

Linoleic Acid (%) .5-1 - - 0.5 2 - 1

Arachidonic Acid (%) .02 - - - - - -

Vitamin A (IU/g) 3.33-5 8 97 76 20 10 11

Vitamin D (IU/g) .5 1 1 1 2 .8 2

Vitamin E (mg/kg) 30-50 57 42 34 12 60 11

Thiamin (mg/kg) 1-5 20 15 13 8 - 6

Riboflavin (mg/kg) 2.2-4 15 16 13 5 - 6

Niacin (mg/kg) 11.4-40 160 194 155 53 - 85

Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 1-4 12 10 10 8 - 6

Folacin (mg/kg) .18-.80 .002 .002 0.41 1.5 - 1.1

Vitamin B12 (mg/kg) .02 .04 .08 0.07 .03 - .02

Pantothenic Acid (mg/kg) 5-10 45 51 40 10 - 23

Choline (mg/kg) 1200-2400 5097 5921 4642 1250 - 2500

Biotin (mg/kg) .07-.10 - - .040 .15 - .09

Vitamin C (mg/kg) - - - - - - -

Calcium (%)

.6-1.1 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 .9 1.1

Phosphorous (%)

.5-.90 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.1 .8 .9

Nutrient

Target Nutrient

Levels

100% Meat-

Based Canine

100% Meat-

Based Feline

Feline & Dry

Dog Kibble

86/14*

100% Dry

Dog Kibble

100% Commercial

Canned Cat Food

100%

Commercial Dry

Cat Food

Magnesium (%) .04 .16 .05 .08 .17 .10 .16

Potassium .4-.6 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.7 - .74

Sodium (%) .05-.06 .58 .60 .59 .57 .72 .57

Iron (mg/kg) 60-80 227 221 223 227 - 284

Zinc (mg/kg) 50-120 113 96 99 108 - 102

Copper (mg/kg) 5-7.3 9 5 8 15 - 14

Manganese (mg/kg) 5 85 63 63 63 - 51

Selenium (mg/kg) .10-.11 .23 0.18 0.13 - - -

Iodine (mg/kg .35-1.54 .71 0.58 1.11 2.5 - 1.71

*Based on 86% total diet meat-based feline and 14% dry dog kibble.

Target nutrient levels based on NRC dogs, 1974, 1985, NRC cats, 1986, the Waltham Center for Pet Nutrition, 1993 Guidelines and

AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for Dog Foods.

Diet analysis provided by utilizing Animal Nutritionist software by N-squared Inc., Silverton, OR.

Feeding Frequency

African wild dogs should be fed at least once per day. Of the institutions surveyed for feeding

protocols, all but two fed their dogs once daily. As discussed earlier, in the wild these animals

usually hunt just before the hours of dawn and dusk (Kruuk, 1967). If possible, feeding twice

daily in captivity may more closely resemble their free ranging feeding habits. Two zoos

provided a beef leg bone only one day a week as a “fast day”. In the wild, African wild dogs

hunt daily and fast only if prey is unavailable. Fresh water should be provided at all times. Food

and water dishes should be disinfected daily to prevent bacterial build-up, especially

Pseudomonas.

Food Items

It is possible to achieve the target nutrient levels outlined in Table 3 by offering a diet consisting

of meat based and dry food items. As Table 3 indicates, a daily diet that combines either meat

based canine or feline diet with a dry dog kibble should meet the needs of adult African wild

dogs. Dogs should be fed separately if possible in order to monitor food intake. Vitamin and

mineral supplements do not appear to be necessary as long as high quality diets are fed. If there

is a question about the adequacy of the diet, it should be analyzed chemically for the nutrients in

question.

Quantity of Food

Total amounts of food per day depend on activity and physiological state. Male and female

African wild dogs weigh between 17-36 kg, with not much variation in size between the sexes

(Walker, 1983). For weight maintenance, wild dogs should consume between .9 grams and 1.14

kg of food per day depending on the energy density of the diet. Body mass should be monitored

and weights obtained on a routine schedule. Diets can be adjusted based on weight records.

Overweight dogs may have their total diet decreased in 5% increments if the diet is still adequate

in nutrients. Other options include decreasing calorically dense food items and/or increasing the

lower calorie items.

Pack members may regurgitate food for other members of their group, especially pregnant

bitches. As a result, the diets of the regurgitating animals may need to be increased (see

Gestation and Lactation section). An example of an appropriate diet for a healthy, active

African wild dog is 680 g meat based feline diet with 113 grams of dry dog kibble fed twice

daily with a beef shank bone and a rat fed once per week.

Whole Prey items

While the nutrient content of many large whole prey items is unavailable, analysis of small prey

items such as mice and chickens indicate that these items can provide important nutrients as well

as variety (Douglas et al., 1994). Occasional shank beef bones, rats, chicks and other small prey

can be added to the diet to provide for behavioral enrichment and to promote good dental health.

Measuring Dietary Intake

Ultimately, it is the diet (food items) actually consumed by each animal that will determine its

nutrient status. Thus, the diet offered will allow the animal to consume the nutrients needed. If

it does not consume the diet, or certain portions of the diet, the animal may not be receiving the

nutrients it requires. Because of this, it may be important to periodically assess the diet

consumption.

Following is an example of the methodology employed in determining diet consumption. Data

on diet offered and consumed should be collected for at least five days. Different keepers should

facilitate collection of data to determine individual food preparation variation. Consumption can

be calculated by determining the quantity (by weight) of food items offered and subtracting the

quantity of food remaining. Food should be portioned out by each keeper according to their

usual procedures. Each item should be weighed on a digital scale before placing it in the food

pan. Orts (leftover food) should be collected by keepers at the end of the feeding time or before

the beginning of the next feeding time. The orts are weighed. Also included in any

measurement of consumption are enrichment food items and should be accounted for in the same

manner.

Because of the possibilities of food dehydration, desiccation should be taken into account.

Likewise, addition of water from rain or misting could also be measured. To determine

desiccation, a weighed sample pan should be placed near a cage (where animals are housed) in

an area free from pests. The pan should be left for the same period of time as the diet and

subjected to similar environmental conditions. The percentage water gain or loss should be

determined and a correction factor calculated. This “factor” can then be used to determine the

actual quantity of diet consumed without the conflicting problem of moisture. A computer

analysis (one example: Animal Nutritionist software by N-squared Inc., Silverton, OR) can be

used to calculate nutrient content of the diet offered and consumed. For nutritional advice,

please consult your nutritionist of obtain a name of a professional nutritionist from the AZA

Nutrition Advisory Group.

Gestation and Lactation

The National Research Council (NRC) Nutrient Requirements for Domestic Dogs suggests the

energy requirements of the pregnant bitch are only slightly above maintenance for the first two-

thirds of gestation. Romsos et al. (1981) and Legrand-Defretin and Munday (1993) found in the

last trimester of pregnancy energy requirements may increase as much as 50-60% above

preconception values. Legrand-Defretin and Munday also note that overfeeding early in

pregnancy may lead to the accumulation of unwanted fat and predispose the animal to problems

at whelping. Because African wild dogs are similar to cats with respect to their carnivorous

feeding strategy, it is important to note that pregnant queens require approximately 25% more

energy for gestation than maintenance (Loveridge, 1986).

Requirements for lactation depend on the size of the litter, with large litters increasing

requirements up to three times maintenance in both dogs and cats (Legrand-Defretin 1993, NRC

for cats 1986, NRC for dogs 1985).

Listed below are recommended guidelines. They may be altered to suit the needs of individual

animals or changing situations.

1. First two thirds of gestation (up to approximately day 46 for wild dogs). An increase of 10-

20% should be implemented as necessary.

2. Last trimester of gestation (day 47+). Based on the needs of the individual animal, changes

should take place in 10% or 20% increments at regular intervals over the last trimester to

limit the possibilities of gastrointestinal stress. The diet should be increased a total of 60%

over the maintenance amount. The full 60% increase does not have to be offered if the

animal continually leaves food. During late pregnancy, the rapidly growing fetuses may

push on the female’s stomach making it difficult for her to consume large amounts of food.

Smaller, more frequent meals may be helpful.

3. Lactation. Increases will be based on individual need, including the size of the litter. The

diet should be increased up to three times maintenance (at peak lactation (about 4 weeks

postpartum for dogs) with a large litter). These increases should take place in 10% or 20%

increments at regular intervals again to limit the possibilities of gastrointestinal stress and

reflect the needs at peak lactation.

Repeated regurgitation to feed the pregnant females may affect the condition of others in the

group and thus, it is important to monitor the condition of all adult dogs in the pack.

Hand Rearing Young

Feeding regimes for hand rearing young are available from the studbook keeper and the Infant

Diet/Care Notebook (newest version: 1993). Zoos have hand reared a number of infants

successfully and reintroduced them after weaning to a family group for socialization and to learn

parental care techniques.

Special Considerations

The importance of the inclusion of a nutritionally complete diet cannot be overemphasized and

its consumption is critical to proper dietary management of African wild dogs. The diet should

be reassessed for nutrient content if one nutritionally complete food item is substituted for

another. A drop or increase in food intake must be carefully watched and body weight should be

maintained. Oral medication may be fed to individuals in favorite items.

REFERENCES

AAFCO, Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc. Nutrient Profiles for Dog Foods:

Pet Food Regulations. In AAFCO Official Publications, Atlanta, GA, 1994.

Creel, S., Marsha Creel, N. Communal hunting and pack size in African wild dogs, Lycaon

pictus. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 50: 1325-1339, 1995.

Douglas, T. C., Pennino, M., Dierenfeld, E.S. Vitamins E and A, and proximate composition of

whole mice and rats used as feed. COMPOSITION OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND

PHYSIOLOGY, 107A: 419-424, 1994.

Fanshawe, J. H., Fitzgibbon, C.D. Factors influencing the hunting success of an African wild

dog pack. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 45: 479-490, 1993.

Fuller, T. K., Kat, P.W. Movements, activity and prey relationships of African wild dogs

(Lycaon pictus) near Aitong, southwestern Kenya. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 28:

330-350, 1990.

Kruuk, H., Turner, M. Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in

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Legrand-Defretin, V., Munday, H. S. THE WALTHAM BOOK OF COMPANION ANIMAL

NUTRITION. 1

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Loveridge, G. G. Body weight changes and energy intakes of cats during gestation and lactation.

ANIM. TECH., 37: 7-15, 1986.

National Research Council. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DOGS. Washington, D. C.,

National Academy Press, 1974 and 1985.

National Research Council. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF CATS. Washington, D.C.,

National Academy Press, 1986.

Rosmos, D. H., Palmer, H. J., Muiruri, K. L., Bennink, M. R. Influence of a low carbohydrate

diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs. JOURNAL OF NUTRITION, 111: 678,

1981.

Toddes, B., 1997. Personal Communication, Philadelphia Zoological Garden, 3400 Girard Ave.,

Philadelphia, PA.

WALKERS MAMMALS OF THE WORLD. 4

ed. Baltimore, MD, John Hopkins University

Press, 1983.