Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive

System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review

and Meta-Analysis

Maria A. Christou

1,2

•

Panagiota A. Christou

•

Georgios Markozannes

•

Agathocles Tsatsoulis

•

George Mastorakos

•

Stelios Tigas

Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

Abstract

Background Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are

testosterone derivatives used by athletes and recreati onal

users to improve athletic performance and/or enhance

appearance. Anabolic androgenic steroids use may have

serious and pote ntially irreversible adverse effects on dif-

ferent organs and systems, including the reproductive

system.

Objective This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed

to critically assess the impact of AAS use on the repro-

ductive system of athletes and recreational users.

Methods An electronic literature search was conducted

using the databases MEDLINE, CENTRAL, and Google

Scholar. Studies were included when the following criteria

were fulﬁlled: participants were athletes or recreational

users of any age, sex, level or type of sport; AAS use of any

type, dose, form or duration; AAS effects on the repro-

ductive system were assessed as stated by medical history,

clinical examination, hormone and/or semen analysis.

Random-effects meta-analysis was performed to assess the

weighted mean difference (WMD) of serum gonadotropin

(luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone) and

testosterone levels compared with baseline, during the

period of AAS use, as well as following AAS

discontinuation.

Results Thirty-three studies (three randomized clinical

trials, 11 cohort, 18 cross-sectional, and one non-random-

ized parallel clinical trial) were included in the systematic

review (3879 participants; 1766 AAS users and 2113 non-

AAS users). The majority of the participants were men;

only six studies provided data for female athletes. A meta-

analysis (11 studies) was conducted of studies evaluating

serum gonadotropin and testosterone levels in male sub-

jects: (1) prior to, and during AAS use (six studies, n = 65

AAS users; seven studies, n = 59, evaluating gonadotropin

and testosterone levels respectively); (2) during AAS use

and following AAS discontinuation (four studies, n = 35;

six studies, n = 39, respectively); as well as (3) prior to

AAS use and following AAS discontinuation (three studies,

n = 17; ﬁve studies, n = 27, respectively). During AAS

intake, signiﬁca nt reductions in luteinizing hormone

[weighted mean difference (WMD) -3.37 IU/L, 95%

conﬁdence interval (CI) -5.05 to -1.70, p \ 0.001], fol-

licle-stimulating hormone (WMD -1.73 IU/L, 95% CI

-2.67 to -0.79, p \ 0.001), and endogenous testosterone

levels (WMD -10.75 nmol/L, 95% CI -15.01 to -6.49,

p \ 0.001) were reported. Following AAS discontinuation,

serum gonadotropin levels gradually returned to baseline

values within 13–24 weeks, whereas serum testosterone

levels remained lower as compared with baseline (WMD

-9.40 nmol/L, 95% CI -14.38 to -4.42, p \ 0.001).

Serum testosterone levels remained reduced at 16 weeks

following discontinuation of AAS. In addition, AAS abuse

resulted in structural and functional sperm changes, a

reduction in testicular volume, gynecomastia, as well as

clitoromegaly, menstrual irregularities, and subfertility.

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this

article (doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0709-z) contains supplementary

material, which is available to authorized users.

& Stelios Tigas

[email protected]

Department of Endocrinology, Medical School, University of

Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece

Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Medical School,

University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece

Endocrine Unit, ‘Aretaieion’ Hospital, Medical School,

National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens,

Greece

123

Sports Med

DOI 10.1007/s40279-017-0709-z

Conclusion The majority of AAS users demonstrated

hypogonadism with persistently low gonadotropin and

testosterone levels , lasting for several weeks to months

after AAS withdrawal. Anabolic androgenic steroid use

results in profound and prolonged effects on the repro-

ductive system of athletes and recreational users and

potentially on fertility.

Key Points

This is the ﬁrst systematic review and meta-analysis of

the effects of anabolic androgenic steroid use on the

reproductive system of athletes and recreational users.

Anabolic androgenic steroid use results in a state of

prolonged hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in male

individuals; gonadotropin levels recover after

13–24 weeks, whereas serum testosterone does not

appear to recover, remaining reduced at 16 weeks

following discontinuation of anabolic androgenic

steroids.

Anabolic andro genic steroid use is associated with

changes in sperm char acteristics, a reduction in

testicular volume and gynecomastia in men, as well

as clitoromegaly and menstrual irregularities in

women and subfertility in both sexes.

1 Introduction

First identiﬁed in 1935, testosterone is the principal hor-

mone controlling the developm ent of androgenic-mas-

culinizing effects in the male body, along with its anabolic

properties that increase lean muscle mass [1]. The anabolic

androgenic steroids (AAS) are testosterone derivatives

used since the 1950s in an attempt to maximize the ana-

bolic effects of testosterone, reduce the rate of its hepatic

inactivation, and decrease its aromatization to estradiol [2].

Anabolic androgenic steroid formulations may be self-ad-

ministered orally, parenterally by intramuscular injection,

or transdermally in the form of a patch or topical gel.

Empirical evidence in the past suggested that AAS were

mostly used by top-level competitive athletes and espe-

cially weightlifters, bodybuilders, and track athletes [3].

However, currently, AAS are widely used, not only by

athletes involved in recreational and minor-league sports

but also by non-athletes. Interestingly, at least four out of

ﬁve AAS users are not competitive athletes but rather men

who desire what they perceive to be an ‘‘enhanced’’

appearance [4].

It is estimated that 2.9–4.0% of Americans have used

AAS at some time in their lives, while high rates of AAS

use have also been reported in many other regions of the

world, such as Scandinavia, Brazil, British Commonwealth

countries, and in continental Europe [5]. A meta-analysis

indicated that the global lifetime prevalence rate of AAS

use is 3.3%, with a higher rate of 6.4% in male individuals

compared with 1.6% in female individuals [4]. In addition,

AAS use appears more prevalent among teenagers com-

pared with individuals aged older than 19 years; notably,

4–6% of high school boys have used AAS [4].

In the short term, AAS use results in few serious med-

ical consequences, but their long-term use has been asso-

ciated with several debilitating physical and psychological

adverse effects and even increased mortality. Speciﬁcally,

adverse effects may range from the development of acne or

gynecomastia, to serious and life threatening effects such

as an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and hepatic

carcinoma [6, 7].

Normal gonadal function depends on the presence of

intact hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis activity through

secretion of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by

the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, as well as gona-

dotropins by the pituitary gland [follicle-stimulating hor-

mone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)]. Anabolic

androgenic steroid use produces dose-dependent depression

of gonadotropin release either by direct act ion on the pitu-

itary gland or by suppression of the hypothalamic GnRH

release. In male individuals, reduced gonadotropin secretion

results in decreased intra-testicular and peripheral testos-

terone levels, leading to AAS-induced hypogonadotropic

hypogonadism manifesting with testicular atrophy,

oligospermia, azoospermia, and other sperm abnormalities

[8]. Some male AAS abusers experience a lack of libido,

erectile dysfunction, or even gynecomastia. Effects on the

prostate gland include hyperplasia, hypertrophy, and possi-

bly cancer [9]. In female individuals, the changes most often

attributed to AAS abuse are menstrual irregularities (delayed

menarche, oligomenorrhea, secondary amenorrhea), dys-

menorrhea, anovulation, clitoral hypertrophy, libido chan-

ges, and uterine atrophy, with many of them being permanent

[10]. Although some narrative reviews have been published

in this area [9 , 11–13], to our knowledge, this is the ﬁrst

systematic review and meta-analysis using explicit

methodology to critically examine AAS effects on the

reproductive system of both male and female athletes.

2 Methods

2.1 Protocol and Registration

The protocol of the study has been submitted to the PROS-

PERO international prospective register of systematic

reviews (Registration Number: CRD42015017099) and the

M. A. Christou et al.

123

guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic

Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement were followed [14].

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were included in the systematic review when the

following criteria were fulﬁlled: participants were athletes or

recreational users of any age, sex, level, or type of sport; AAS

use of any type, dose, form, or duration; AAS effects on the

reproductive system of athletes were assessed as stated by

medical history, clinical examination, hormone analysis and/

or semen analysis. Medical history and/or clinical examina-

tion referred to the assessment of speciﬁc signs and symptoms,

such as testicular or clitoris size, regularity of menstruation,

and changes in libido. At least one of the following three

hormone values had to be reported: LH, FSH, and/or testos-

terone. Semen analysis included the measurement of different

sperm characteristics, such as sperm concentration, motility,

and morphology. No language, publication date, or publica-

tion status restrictions were imposed. All study designs were

eligible except for case reports, case series, reviews, and meta-

analyses. For studies on overlapping populations, the one

providing the most complete data was included in the analysis.

In the meta-analysis, studies were included when the mean

hormone values and the standard deviation, or the necessary

data to compute them, were provided for at least two time-

points, i.e., at baseline, at the end of AAS use and/or at the end

of the period of AAS discontinuation.

2.3 Study Selection and Data Extraction

Eligible studies were identiﬁed by searching electronic data-

bases, scanning reference lists of included articles, and also

after screening r eferences of pe rtinent reviews. The search was

applied to MEDLINE (PubMed), Cochrane Central Registry of

Controlled Clinical Trials (CENTRAL), and Google Scholar

(from inception to August 201 6). The algorithm ‘‘(anabolic OR

androgenic OR AAS) AND (reproduction OR fertility OR

hormone OR semen OR sperm OR hypogonad*)’’ was used to

search for all relevant studies in the aforementioned databases.

Screening of the retrieved records (titles, abstracts, full texts)

and data extraction of the included studies were performed

independently in an unblended standardized manner by two

reviewers (M.A.C., P.A.C.). Disagreements between reviewers

were resolved by consensus. If no agreement could be reached,

then a third author (S.T.) decided.

2.4 Risk of Bias Assessment

Risk of bias of the included studies was assessed by the

Cochrane Collaboration Tool for Randomized Controlled

Trials [15]. The domains used pertain to randomization and

allocation concealment (selection bias), blinding of

participants and personnel (performance bias), blinding of

outcome assessment (detection bias), incomplete outcome

data (attrition bias), selective reporting (reporting bias), and

other bias. This tool assigns a judgment of high, unclear, or

low risk of bias for each item. To draw conclusions about the

overall risk of bias for each study, it is necessary to sum-

marize assessments across the different domains. The RTI

Item Bank tool, which consists of 13 questions, was used for

the assessment of risk of bias in observational studies

[16, 17]. Each study was given a score and graded as high,

unclear, or low risk of bias based on the number of critical

appraisal items met. The cut-off score was determined, based

on previous systematic reviews and meta- analyses [18, 19]

as follows; 0.00–0.30, high risk of bias; 0.31–0.70, unclear

risk of bias; and 0.71–1.00, low risk of bias.

2.5 Statistical Anal ysis

Quantitative analysis was performed to assessthe changefrom

baseline in mean hormone values during the period of AAS

use (i.e., prior to, and at the end of a period of active AAS use),

as well as following AAS discontinuation (i.e., hormone

levels at the end of a period of AAS discontinuation compared

with those prior to AAS use and compared with those at the

end of a period of AAS use). P-values lower than 0.05 were

considered statistically signiﬁcant. They were provided with

precision at the third decimal point. All p-values lower than

0.001 were reported as \0.001. Random-effects meta-analy-

sis was conducted owing to the presence of statistically sig-

niﬁcant heterogeneity in the included studies. The meta-

analysis was based on the inverse variance method for

weighting. The DerSimonian and Laird estimator was used to

pool mean differences of each study and estimate the overall

weighted mean difference (WMD), as well as 95% conﬁdence

interval (CI) [20]. Heterogeneity was assessed with the

Cochran’s Q test statistic [21], with a p-value\0.1 denoting

statistical signiﬁcance. The degree of heterogeneity was

assessed using the formula: I

¼ 100% 

Qðk1Þ

; where

k represents the number of included studies [22]. The I

statistic ranges from 0% to 100% and cut-off values of 25, 50,

and 75% indicate low, moderate, high, and very high degree of

heterogeneity, respectively. Data analyses were conducted

using the statistical program Stata (Version 13.1; StataCorp,

College Station, TX, USA).

3 Results

3.1 Characteristics of Included Studies

Based on electronic databases search, 19,112 potentially

eligible citations were identiﬁed. Thirty-four additional

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

eligible studies were found through other sources. Of these

19,146 citations, 18,978 did not mee t the inclusion criteria

after reviewing the abstracts. The full text of the remaining

168 citations was examined in more detail. Thirty-ﬁve

studies met the eligibility criteria. However, in four studies,

overlapping populations were studied. Speciﬁcally, the

study by Stromme et al. [3] referred to the same population

as that of Aakvaag and Stromme [23], and therefore only

the latter was included in the analysis as it provided more

complete data. Studies by Holma and Adlercreutz and

Holma included the same distinct population, but assessed

different outcomes; they were therefore anal yzed as a

single study [24, 25]. Finally, 33 studies were included in

the systematic review. The process of study selection is

detailed in the ﬂow diagram provided in Fig. 1.

One study [26] involved two partially overlapping

populations for two separate experiments [methandienone

experiment, n = 12 and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate

(DHEAS), experiment n = 16]. Owing to the fact that

methandienone is considered a potent AAS, whereas

DHEAS is actually a natural weak androgen and hormone

precursor, results of the methandienone experiment were

included in the main analysis and the DHEAS experiment

data were used for sensitivity analysis. Regarding study

design, 11 cohort studies (33%), 18 cross-sectional studies

(55%), three randomized controlled trials (9%), and one

non-randomized parallel clinical trial (3%) were consid-

ered eligible. In the randomized controlled trials, either a

parallel [23] or a cross-over design was used [26, 27].

The publication year of studies included in the analysis

extended from 1972 to 2016, with most studies being

published between 1980 and 1990 (n = 10, 30%). The

majority of studies were conducted in Europe (18 studies,

55%; eight of which studies from Finland) and USA (11

studies, 33%). The median (25th–75th percentile) duration

of the follow-up period was 24.5 (15–42) weeks. The

language of all eligible publications was English.

3.1.1 Participants

The total number of participants in the studies included in

the systematic review was 3879 (1766 AAS users and 2113

controls), with a mean (standard deviation) age of 28.7

(4.9) years. Most studies involved only men (27 out of 33

Fig. 1 Preferred reporting

items for systematic reviews

and meta-analyses ﬂow diagram

M. A. Christou et al.

123

studies), four studies [28–31] referred only to women, and

two more studies included both male and female athletes

[32, 33]. The most common type of exercise was strength

training and particularly bodybuilding, weightlifting, and

powerlifting. When the comparator group was available, it

usually ref erred to athletes not using AAS.

3.1.2 Type of Exposure/Intervention

Exposure or intervention in all eligible studies was AAS

use. The median (25th–75th percentile) number of different

AAS agents per study was 5.5 (3–11) and the median

(25th–75th percentile) duration of AAS use was 12 (8–25)

weeks. The AAS substances used more often were testos-

terone esters (94% of studies), methandrostenolone or

methandienone (79% of studies), and stanozolol (67% of

studies). The large diversity across different studies

regarding the dose and route of AAS self-administratio n

made the conduction of descriptive analysis for these

parameters impractical. Characteristics of the included

studies are shown in summary in Table 1 and in more

detail in the Electr onic Supplementary Material Table S1.

3.1.3 Outcome Deﬁnition and Method of Assessment

The main outcome was AAS effects on the reproductive

system of athletes, as assessed by medical history and/or

clinical examination (in 23/33 studies, 70%), hormone

analysis (in 19/33 studies, 58%), and semen analysis (in

9/33 studies, 27%). The most common method of testos-

terone measurement was by radioimmunoassay (in 13/19

studies, 68%). Seme n analyses were usually based on

World Health Organization guidelines at the time (in 5/9

studies, 56%). In 14/33 studies (42%), athletes were fol-

lowed for a period of time following AAS cessation, lasting

12–24 weeks (25th–75th percentile), with a median of

16 weeks.

3.2 Outcomes of Included Studies

Outcomes of the 33 eligible studies included the following:

(1) changes of serum hormone levels (LH, FSH, testos-

terone) during AAS use, and following AAS discontinua-

tion; (2) changes of semen characteristics during AAS use

and following AAS cessation; and/or (3) reproductive

system changes as assessed by medical history and/or

clinical examination. To examine changes in endogenous

testosterone during AAS use, we separately examined

studies in which testosterone was included in the AAS

regimen and studies in which the AAS used did not contain

testosterone and/or the AAS compounds were such that

interference with the levels of serum testosterone was

unlikely (methandienone, mesterolone, nandrolone). The

outcome assessment is shown in Electronic Supplementary

Material Tables S2 and S3.

3.2.1 Hormone Changes During AAS Use (Comparison

of Hormone Levels Prior to, and During Active AAS

Use)

Six studies, involving 65 AAS users, were included in LH

and FSH meta-analysis [24, 26, 34–37]. The random-ef-

fects model suggested signiﬁcant reductions in both LH

(WMD -3.37 IU/L, 95% CI -5.05 to -1.70, p \ 0.001)

and FSH levels (WMD -1.73 IU/L, 95% CI -2.67 to -

0.79, p \ 0.001) during the period of AAS use (Fig. 2).

There was signiﬁcant high and moderate heterogeneity

across these studies (I

= 88.6%, p \ 0.001 and I

= 55%,

p = 0.049, respectively). Five studies that did not fulﬁll the

criteria for inclusion in the meta-analysis, showed that

serum gonadotropin levels decreased from baseline when

AAS use was started, or alternatively a lower level com-

pared with controls or normal values was reported

[27, 31, 38–41], whereas in three studies no difference was

found [23, 42, 43].

Data analysis from studies in which testosterone had not

been used in the AAS regimen [23, 24, 26, 34], comprising

43 AAS users, revealed a decrease in the endoge nous blood

testosterone level of 10 .75 nmol/L (95% CI -15.01 to -

6.49, p \ 0.001) during the period of AAS use (Fig. 2).

High heterogeneity was found among studies (I

= 87.8%,

p \ 0.001). Data analysis from studies in which testos-

terone was self-administered as part of the AAS regimen

[35, 36, 44], involving 16 AAS users, revealed a margin-

ally non-signiﬁcant increase in testosterone levels (WMD

17.55 nmol/L, 95% CI -0.77 to 35.86, p = 0.060)

(Fig. 2). There was signiﬁcant high heterogeneity across

studies (I

= 75.9%, p = 0.016). The study by Bonetti

et al. [37] was excluded from the analysis as testosterone

was self-administered in some but not all study participants

and testosterone levels were provided for the study popu-

lation as a whole only (a non-signiﬁcant decrease in

testosterone of 1.15 nmol/L was reported). Another two

studies that did not provide all necessary data to be

included in the meta-analysis and in which testosterone

was not part of the AAS regimen, reported a lower serum

testosterone level during AAS use [27, 40], whereas, as

expected, the opposite was reported in studies in which

testosterone was included in the regimen

[31, 38, 39, 42, 43]. Remarkably, in the study of Malarkey

et al. [31], the mean serum testosterone levels were 30

times those found in the non-AAS female weightlifters or

in the normal female population. In the study of Remes

et al. [26], results for all three hormones did not differ,

independent of whether the AAS agent used was DHEAS

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

Table 1 Studies characteristics

First author (year of

publication)

N Sex Type of AAS Duration of

AAS use

Type of exercise Duration of AAS

cessation

Follow-up

Cohort study

Al-Janabi (2011) [45] 24 Male MD, ND, TE NA Bodybuilding 12 weeks 12 weeks

Garevik (2011) [41] 35 Male TS, ND, ST NA Working out at gym facilities 12 months 12 months

Bonetti (2008) [37] 20 Male NAN, NAL, NAND, NALD, AL, AN, DHEAS, MT,

MD, OX, ML, NL, ST, TS

24 months Bodybuilding NA 24 months

Karila (2004) [39] 18 Male MD, MS, OY, ST, MT, OX, FM, MAN, TU, TES, NL,

ML, TR, BU, TS

NA Power athletes 6 months

6 months

Alen (1987) [36] 15 Male ST, NL, MD, TS 12 weeks Power athletes 13 weeks 25 weeks

Martikainen (1986)

[46]

6 Male TS, MD, ND, ST 3 months Power athletes 3 weeks 15 weeks

Alen (1985) [35] 11 Male MD, ST, NL, TS 26 weeks Bodybuilding, powerlifting,

wrestling

16 weeks 42 weeks

Ruokonen (1985) [44] 9 Male MD, NL, ST, TS 26 weeks Power athletes 16 weeks 42 weeks

Alen (1984) [47] 14 Male MD, NL, ST, ML, TS 6 months Power athletes 6 months 12 months

Schurmeyer (1984)

[34]

5 Male NTH 13 weeks Active in sports, undertake heavy

physical training

Up to 24 weeks Up to

37 weeks

Holma (1976)

[24] 16 Male MD 2 months Well-trained athletes 3 months 5 months

Cross-sectional study

rjesson (2016) [30] 8 Female ST, ME, NL NA Bodybuilding, strength training,

other sports

NA NA

Kanayama (2015) [53] 55 Male NR NA Weight lifting NA NA

Razavi (2014) [56] 250 Male TS, NL, OY, O NA Bodybuilding NA NA

Coward (2013) [51] 80 Male ND, ST, MD, TR, OX, OY, DP, BU, ME NA NR NA NA

Ip (2010) [32] 748 Males,

female

OX, NL, BO, ST, MD, TP, TE NA Strength-trained exercise NA NA

Taher (2008) [40] 30 Male MD, ML, OY, ND, TP, TB NA Bodybuilding NA NA

Perry (2005) [52] 207 Male ND, TB, BO, ST, TR, TS, TC, TE, TP, MD, OX NA Bodybuilding, weight lifting, other

sports

NA NA

Urhausen (2003) [38] 31 Male DMT, FM, MS, ML, MD, OX, OY, ST, BO, DS, FB,

NL, ETT

NA Bodybuilding, powerlifting NA NA

Torres-Calleja (2001)

[43]

30 Male OY, MA, ND, TDP, MS, TE, TP NA Bodybuilding NA MA

Gruber (2000) [29] 75 Female ST, MA, NL, OX, MS, BO, TES, MD, OY NA Bodybuilding, weight lifting NA NA

Evans (1997) [50] 100 Male ND, ST, MD, ML, TR, OX, OY, DS, BO, TC, TP, TB,

TH, TE, TU

NA Weight training NA NA

Korkia (1997) [33] 1,669 Male,

female

OX, ST, MD, TES, ND NA Subjects attending gymnasia NA NA

Pope (1994) [49] 156 Male TS, NL, OY, ST, ML, BO, OX, MD, MS, MT, O NA Weight lifting NA NA

M. A. Christou et al.

123

Table 1 continued

First author (year of

publication)

N Sex Type of AAS Duration of

AAS use

Type of exercise Duration of AAS

cessation

Follow-up

Malarkey (1991) [31] 16 Female MD, ST, ND, OX, TES, MI, MA, TRA, TR NA Weight lifting NA NA

Knuth (1989) [42] 82 Male TES, NTE, MD, ML, ST, TR, BO, OX, CL, MS, OY NA Bodybuilding NA NA

Yesalis (1988) [55] 45 Male MD, OX, OY, ST, ML, MS, FM, NE, MT, TES, NDE,

TR, TA, BU, FB

NA Powerlifting NA NA

Strauss (1985) [28] 10 Female MS, MD, MA, MT, OX, ST, BU, ME, ND, SA, TC,

MTE

NA Weight training NA NA

Strauss (1983) [54] 39 Male MD, OX, ST, ET, OY, MT, ND, TC, TE, ME, NP,

TRB, TN, HM, THR

NA Bodybuilding, powerlifting NA NA

RCT

Remes (1977)

[26] 12 Male MD 2 months Runners NA 8 months

Hervey (1976) [27] 11 Male MD 12 weeks Weight training NA 20 weeks

Aakvaag (1974) [23] 21 Males MS 8 weeks NR NA 8 weeks

Non-randomized parallel clinical trial

Johnson (1972) [48] 31 Male MD 21 days Weight training NA 7 weeks

AAS anabolic androgenic steroids, AL androstenediol, AN androstenedione, BO boldenone, BU boldenone undecylenate, CL clostebol, DHEAS dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, DMT

4-dehydrochlormethyltestosterone, DP drostanolone propionate, DS drostanolone, ET ethylestrenol, ETT different esters of testosterone and trenbolone, FB formebolone, FM ﬂuoxymesterone,

HM hexoxymestrolum, MA methenolone acetate, MAN methylandrostenedione, MD methandienone/methandrostenolone, ME methenolone enanthate, MI mibolerone, ML methenolone, MS

mesterolone, MT methyltestosterone, MTE mixture of testosterone esters, N total number of participants, NA not applicable, NAL norandrostenediol, NALD 19-nor-4-androstenediol, NAN

norandrostenedione, NAND 19-nor-4-androstenedione, ND nandrolone decanoate, NDE nandrolone esters, NE norethandrolone, NL nandrolone, NP nandrolone phenpropionate, NR not

reported, NTE 19-nortestosterone esters, NTH 19-nortestosterone-hexoxyphenyl propionate, O other, OX oxandrolone, OY oxymetholone, RCT randomized controlled trial, SA stenbolone

acetate, ST

stanozolol, TA testosterone aqueous, TB testosterone blend, TC testosterone cypionate, TDP testosterone decanoate and propionate, TE testosterone enanthate, TES testosterone

esters, TH testosterone heptylate, THR therobolin, TN testosterone nicotinate, TP testosterone propionate, TR trenbolone, TRA trenbolone acetate, TRB trophobolene, TS testosterone, TU

testosterone undecanoate

Duration of AAS cessation and follow-up are 6 months for hormone and semen analysis, and 6 years for fertility assessment (number of children conceived and successful pregnancies)

Data of the studies Holma and Adlercreutz [24] and Holma [25] were combined because they referred to overlapping populations and they assessed different outcomes

Data refer to characteristics of the methandienone experiment

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

Fig. 2 Hormone changes

during anabolic androgenic

steroid (AAS) use. FSH follicle-

stimulating hormone, LH

luteinizing hormone

M. A. Christou et al.

123

or methandienone (sensitivity analysis, Electronic Supple-

mentary Material Fig. S1).

3.2.2 Hormone Changes Following AAS Cessation

(Comparison of Hormone Levels at the End

of a Period of Active AAS Use and After a Period

of AAS Discontinuation)

Four studies, involving 35 AAS users, were included in the

LH and FSH meta-analysis [34–36, 39]. LH and FSH levels

increased during the period following AAS withdrawal

(WMD 2.68 IU/L, 95% CI 1.59–3.77, p \ 0.001 and

WMD 1.89 IU/L, 95% CI 1.05–2.74, p \ 0.001, respec-

tively) (Fig. 3). There was moderate heterogeneity across

studies (I

= 70.3%, p = 0.009 and I

= 54.5%,

p = 0.066, respectively). Consistent with these results, the

two studies that were excluded from the meta-analysis

because of a lack of appropriate data, showed that gona-

dotropin levels gradually recovered when AAS were

withdrawn [ 41 , 45].

Data analysis from studies in which testosterone was

part of the AAS regimen [34–36, 39, 44], involving 34

AAS users, revealed, as expected, a decrease of testos-

terone levels following AAS cessation (WMD

-28.04 nmol/L , 95% CI -45.11 to -10.98, p = 0.001)

(Fig. 3). High heterogeneity across studies was found

= 75.5%, p = 0.003). In the study of Schurmeyer et al.

[34], in which testosterone was not include d in the AAS

regimen, a statistically signiﬁcant increase in testosterone

of 10.64 nmol/L was reported.

Finally, in a study that did not fulﬁll the criteria for

inclusion in the meta-analysis and in which a control group

was compared with a group of athletes during AAS use

including testosterone, serum testosterone levels were

lower compared with controls and did not increase signif-

icantly compared with the timepoint when AAS were

withdrawn [ 45 ].

3.2.3 Hormone Changes Prior to AAS Use and After

a Period of AAS Discontinuation

Three studies [34–36], including 17 AAS users, were included

in LH and FSH meta-analysis. LH and FSH levels were

similar to baseline at the end of a period (range 13–24 weeks)

of AAS discontinuation (WMD 0.57 IU/L, 95% CI -0.60 to

1.74, p = 0.340 and WMD 0.43 IU/L, 95% CI -0.63 to 1.49,

p = 0.426, respectively) (Fig. 4). There was non-signiﬁcant

low heterogeneity across studies (I

= 0%, p = 0.524 and

= 0%, p = 0.639, respectively).

Data from four studies in which testosterone was sel f-

administered as part of the AAS regimen [35, 36 , 44, 46],

involving 22 AAS users, revealed that serum testosterone

levels at the end of a period of AAS discontinuation were

lower compared with baseline levels (WMD -9.40 nmol/

L, 95% CI -14.38 to -4.42, p \ 0.001) (Fig. 4). The

period of AAS discontinuation in these four studies ranged

from 13 to 16 weeks apart from that in the study by

Martikainen et al. [46], in which a shorter AAS discon-

tinuation period of only 3 weeks was used, potentially

explaining the larger serum testosterone level difference at

the end of this study. There was non-signiﬁcant moderate

heterogeneity across studies (I

= 36.6%, p = 0.192). In

the study of Schurmeyer et al. [34], in which testosterone

was not included in the AAS regimen, endogenous serum

testosterone levels returned to normal after 6 months.

3.2.4 Semen Cha nges During and Following AAS Use

Seven out of eight studies showed impairment of numerous

sperm characteristic s, such as total number, concentration,

motility, and normal morphology [25, 34, 37, 39, 42, 43, 47].

However, in one study, no signiﬁcant change in spermato-

genesis was observed [48]. All studies in which this outcome

was asse ssed showed persistent quantitative and qualitative

sperm changes 8–30 weeks following AAS withdrawal

[25, 34, 39, 42, 45, 47].

In general, in the above studies, changes were assessed

and reported in a non-quantitative fashion. In the study by

Holma [25], the ‘fertility index’ was used (a score based on

sperm numbers, motility, quality of motility, and mor-

phology). This index deteriorated during AAS use from 1.7

(3.0) to 14.7 (14.6), which is interpreted as ‘severely

pathological’ [mean (standard deviation)] [25].

3.2.5 Outcomes Assessed by Medical History and/

or Clinical Examination

A number of studies reported testicular atrophy

[32–34, 37, 47, 49–52] in male athletes. Following AAS

withdrawal, one study found that former AAS users displayed

smaller testicular volumes compared with non-users [53].

However, testicular atrophy was more prominent among

current than past users, indicating that testicular size tends to

normalize after AAS withdrawal [49], although this may take

up to 16 weeks [34]. Some studies reported gynecomastia in

male individuals [32, 33, 37, 38, 50, 52, 54, 55], whereas two

other studies stated no effects of AAS use regarding this

outcome [34, 42]. Remarkably, in the study of Pope et al. [49],

gynecomastia was equally common between current and past

users, indicating that AAS-induced gynecomastia is often

irreversible. In the only six studies involving female athletes,

clitoromegaly and menstrual irregularities were reported as

the main AAS-related side effect during the period of AAS use

[28–33].

Only three studies determined AAS effects on fertility.

In the study of Karila et al. [39], subjects were asked about

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

Fig. 3 Hormone changes

following anabolic androgenic

steroid (AAS) cessation. FSH

follicle-stimulating hormone,

LH luteinizing hormone

M. A. Christou et al.

123

Fig. 4 Hormone changes

during the overall period. FSH

follicle-stimulating hormone,

LH luteinizing hormone

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

the number of children conceived and successful preg-

nancies, and 6 years following AAS cessation, 55.56% (10/

18) of them reported having at least one child, whereas the

same outcome during the period of AAS use was 27.78%

(5/18). Additionally, Coward et al. [51] mentioned that

11.3% (9/80) of the subjects stated infertility/low sperm

count during the period of AAS use in a self-reported

questionnaire. Similarly, in the study of Korkia et al. [33],

6% of the male athletes and 7% of the female athletes

reported having fertility problems.

3.3 Risk of Bias Assessment

Based on the Cochrane Collaboration Tool for Randomized

Controlled Trials, all studies [23, 26, 27] were rated as of

unclear risk. Regarding randomization, allocation con-

cealment, and selective reporting, the total risk of bias was

unclear. Concerning blinding of participants and personnel,

blinding of outcome assessment, and incomplete outcome

data, the overall risk of bias was low.

Based on the RTI Item Bank tool, nine cohort studies

(82%) were rated as having an unclear risk of bias

[24, 35 – 37, 41, 44– 47 ], one study (9%) as having a high

risk [39] and one more study (9%) as having a low risk of

bias [34]. Moreover, of low risk were the following items:

sample deﬁnition and selection (Question 1), soundness of

information (Question 6), follow-up (Question 7), and

interpretation of results (Question 11). All the other ques-

tions were rated as of high or unclear risk of bias. Seven

cross-sectional studies (39%) were of unclear risk of bias

[29, 31, 38, 40, 42, 43, 49], ten studies (55%) were rated as

high risk [28, 30, 32, 33, 50–52, 54–56], and one more

study (6%) was of low risk [53]. Furthermore, the creation

of treatment group (Question 3) and interpretation of

results were rated as low risk (Question 11). All the other

questions were rated as having a high or unclear risk of

bias. The results for the assessment of risk of bias are

shown in the Electronic Supplementary Material Table S4.

4 Discussion

4.1 Main Findings

To our knowledge, this is the ﬁrst comprehensive system-

atic review and meta-analysis examining the effects of

AAS use on the reproductive system of athletes and

recreational users. As few studies focused on female sub-

jects, the meta-analysis involved exclusively studies on

male athletes and recreational users. Anabolic androgenic

steroids use results in a state of prolonged hypogo-

nadotropic hypogonadism in male individuals; gonado-

tropin levels recover 13–24 weeks after discontinuation of

AAS, whereas serum testosterone remains reduced at

16 weeks. Moreover, a systematic review of available

evidence revealed that long- term AAS use results in pro-

longed hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in both sexes,

changes in sperm characteristics, a reduction in testicular

volume and gynecomastia in men, as well as clitoromegaly

and menstrual irregularities in female individuals.

In almost all studies included in the meta- analysis, there

were reductions in serum LH and FSH levels during the

period of active AAS use (Fig. 2). Speciﬁcally, AAS sup-

press gonadotropin release from the pituitary through

negative feedback mechani sms, either directly on the

pituitary gland or indirectly through suppression of the

hypothalamic GnRH release. The lack of a clear effect on

gonadotropin levels in some studies may be explained by

the low dosage and/or short period of AAS use, or by the

self-administration of synthetic AAS with weak andro-

genicity compared with testosterone [23, 42, 43].

In addition, during AAS use, the meta-analysis revealed

a reduction in basal serum testosterone levels (Fig. 2). In

addition to causing a drop in levels of endogenous testos-

terone by inhibiting gonadotropin secretion, AAS use

might also accelerate the metabolic clearance rate of

testosterone or inhibit its biosynthesis by direct action on

the gonads [24]. As expected, in studies in which exoge-

nous testosterone was included in the AAS regimen,

plasma levels of testosterone were considerably increased

during AAS use (Fig. 2).

In two studies, gonadal function was assessed by the

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) or LH-releasing

hormone stimulation test. Notably, in subjects that had

been using high AAS doses for a period of 3 months, the

testicular responsiveness to a single injection of hCG was

similar to that in prepubertal boys [46]. Moreover, Holma

and Adlercreutz [24] showed that in well-trained athletes

who had been taking 15 mg of methandienone daily for

8 weeks, post-stimulation testosterone values after LH-re-

leasing hormone administration were lower compared with

those prior to AAS use. HCG has also been used as a

secondary supplement alongside AAS use or following

AAS discontinuation, in an attempt to trigger the produc-

tion and release of endogenous testosterone, by mimicking

LH action. In this respect, Karila et al. [39] suggested that

when AAS use was combined with hCG, spermatogenesis

was maintained, regardless of the AAS-induced suppres-

sion of gonadotropin secretion, although some structural

and functional sperm changes occurred.

In theory, cyclical AAS use may allow the recovery of

the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis, resulting in less

pronounced effects on the reproductive system. In the

majority of the studies included in the meta-analysis, AAS

were used in a continuous way. Because only two studies

examined cyclical AAS use [37, 39], the available data

M. A. Christou et al.

123

were insufﬁcient to allow an assessment of the impact of

the method of AAS use (continuous or cyclical) on the

reproductive system.

Following AAS withdrawal, LH and FSH levels

increased to reach the levels prior to AAS use after a period

of 13–24 weeks [34–36]. Interestingly, despite normaliza-

tion of gonadotropin levels in some studies, serum testos-

terone remained lower compared with baseline (mean

difference of 9.40 nmol/L) even at 16 wee ks after AAS

withdrawal [35, 36, 44, 46], indicating prolonged impai r-

ment of the hypothalamus–pituitary–testicular axis and/or

testicular atrophy. In all these studies, testosterone was

included in the AAS regimen. It is possible that a shorter

duration of AAS use, lower AAS doses, younger age of the

athletes, and highe r testosterone levels at baseline are

associated with a more ‘elastic axis’, capable of recovering

GnRH pulsation and gonadotropin secretion faster and

more completely [57]. In studies in which subjects used

AAS not affecting the measurement of serum testosterone,

endogenous serum testosterone levels were reduced com-

pared with basal values during AAS use (m ean difference

of 10.75 nmol/ L) and returned to normal after 6 months

(Fig. 2).

In men, testosterone is synthesized in the testes under

the regulation of LH, whereas FSH is mainly responsible

for initiation of spermatogenesis. Full maturation of the

spermatozoa requires the effects of both FSH and testos-

terone. Therefore, suppression of gonadotropins by AAS

use results in reduced endogenous testosterone production

as well as a decrease in spermatogenesis and sperm pro-

duction, atrophy of the seminiferous tubules , and eventu-

ally testicular atrophy [9]. In most studies included in the

systematic review that assessed semen changes during

AAS use, a number of sperm parameters were found to be

impaired [25, 34 , 37, 39, 42, 43, 47] and in the three studies

that examined these changes following AAS cessation, the

recovery of semen characteristics to normal, occurred

within varying periods from 8 to 30 weeks [25, 34, 47].

Studies that assessed AAS effects by medical history

and/or clinical examination found a reduced testicular

volume in male athletes [32–34, 37, 47, 49–52], which

tends to normalize following AAS withdrawal. Gyneco-

mastia was reported in several studies [32, 33 , 37,

38, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55

]; this may occur as a result of

peripheral conversion of AAS to estrogen in those men

abusing aromatizable AAS [9]. Moreover, clitoromegaly

and men strual irregularities were reported in female indi-

viduals [28–33]. Notably, Gruber and Pope [29] attributed

amenorrhea to a direct effect of AAS use, or alternatively,

to the low body fat attained through a low-calorie diet.

Anabolic androgenic steroid use also seems to have a

negative impact on the fertility of AAS users, as has been

stated in questionnaires [33, 39, 51]. A number o f factors,

such as the type of sport, exercise intensity with high-en-

ergy expenditure, energy balance, fat composition, disor-

dered eating behavior, and physical and emoti onal stress,

may contribute to a state of hypogonadotropic hypogo-

nadism, evidenced clinically by menstrual irregularity in

female athletes, even without AAS abuse [58, 59]. Ana-

bolic androgenic steroid use associated with prolonged

periods of hypogonadism may have a number of adverse

health consequences such as effects on mood and memory,

reduced libido, fatigue, lipid abnormalities, low bone

mineral density/osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, and

increased cardiovascular risk [7, 60].

4.2 Strengths and Limitations

An important strength of this study is that it is the ﬁrst sys-

tematic review and meta-analysis to assess the relationship

between the use of AAS and effects on the reproductive

system of athletes. Furthermore, this article includes both a

systematic review and a meta-analysis of the hormones LH,

FSH, and testosterone, which are considered to be the main

regulators of the reproductive system.

Research in the ﬁeld of AAS use in sports is limited by

problems and restrictions, i.e., the sample size is small

owing to the secret nature of drug use; self-selection may

produce subjects who are not representative of the overall

population of AAS users; diversity in the type, dose,

duration, and route of AAS use; most studies have not used

urine testing to conﬁrm AAS used; AAS may be hidden in

food supplements and are not easily accessible; false-pos-

itive responses on anonymous questionnaires regarding

‘steroids’; contemporary use of more than one AAS at high

doses; different methodology of hormone measurements in

serum; and possible interactions with other commonly used

drugs. Additionally, the stated AAS doses in studies may

have been considerably lower than the actual self-admin-

istered doses and different methods of AAS use were

employed (e.g., cyclical use, stacking, pyramiding).

However, two main limitations include the fact that the

majority of included studies were rated as having unclear

risk of bias and also many studies were not considered

eligible to be included in the meta-analysis, thus limiting

the possibility of achieving greater power and more robust

associations. Moreover, eligible studies did not control for

potential confounding factors, such as age, sex, type of

exercise, and different AAS characteristics, which can be

responsible for a spurious relationship between AAS use

and the obser ved effects on the reproductive system of

athletes. Notably, there were a few studies conducted in

female athletes, and as a result, limited data were available

concerning AAS effects on the female reproductive system,

as well as on fertility. For the same reason, the meta-

analysis involved exclusively studies on male athletes.

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Use and Reproduction

123

5 Conclusion

The present meta-analysis showed that serum gonadotropin

and endogenous testosterone levels decr eased during a

period of active AAS use in male athletes. Hormone levels

gradually returned to normal, although serum testosterone

remained lower compared with baseline several weeks

following AAS cessation. Moreover, a systematic revi ew

of the literature revealed that the effects of long-term AAS

use include testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, and impair-

ment of sperm characteristics in men, as well as cli-

toromegaly and menstrual irregularities in women,

potentially affecting fertility in both sexes. Anabolic

androgenic steroid abuse has negative, potentially serious

long-terms effects on the reproductive system and general

health of users; further action is necessary to manage this

global public health issue, together with education of the

public, athletes, trainers, and healthcare providers.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Funding No funding was obtained for the preparation of this study.

Conﬂict of interest Maria A. Christou, Panagiota A. Christou,

Georgios Markozannes, Agathocles Tsatsoulis, George Mastorakos,

and Stelios Tigas declare that they have no conﬂicts of interest; they

have received no research grants or speaker honoraria from any drug

company and they own no stock in any drug company.

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