iia White Paper
INTERNATIONAL
IRRADIATION
ASSOCIATION
Uses and Applications of
Radiation Processing
November 2020
The document is intended to give a non-technical
introduction to the signicant uses of radiation processing
and summarises how they are applied throughout various
regions of the world. In some instances, regional application
reects the need to nd solutions to challenges, but the
most dynamic, economically successful and environmentally
engaged economies have integrated all of the benecial
uses of radiation processing with scientic research and
commercial application. Radiation processing, or ‘irradiation’,
is ubiquitous and an important component of a modern
successful economy.
The document was initiated by the International Irradiation
Association and includes contributions from independent
groups and associations that have their own regional
insight. All contributors are engaged in the support and
enhancement of the safe and benecial use of irradiation
technology.
We hope that readers nd this publication enlightening
and interesting.
The International Irradiation Association would like
to thank the following organisations for their support
and regional input:
• American Nuclear Society (ANS, USA)
• Asociación Latinoamericana de Tecnologías de la
Irradiación (ALATI, Latin America)
• Canadian Nuclear Isotope Council (CNIC, Canada)
• China Isotope & Radiation Association (CIRA, China)
• National Association for Application of Radioisotopes
and Radiation in Industry (NAARRI, India)
• Panel on Gamma & Electron Irradiation (UK)
Further details about these organisations can be
found at the end of this document.
More information about the International
Irradiation Association can be found at iiaglobal.com
We welcome your feedback on this document
and iia can be contacted at [email protected]
This report highlights the importance and global economic, social
and environmental benets that arise from radiation processing.
32
Introduction 4
Summary of uses of radiation processing 5 – 6
Introduction to radiation processing technologies 7
Regional applications of irradiation
China 8 – 9
Europe, Middle East & Africa, and Russia 10 – 11
Japan & South Korea 12 – 13
Latin America 14
South Asia 15
South East Asia & Australasia 16 – 17
USA & Canada 18 – 19
Foreword
54
Radiation processing is the intentional exposure of products and
materials to ionising radiation for benecial purposes. The uses and
applications deliver signicant social, economic and environmental
benets worldwide.
Radiation processing is routinely used in a vast array of diverse
and benecial applications. This summary highlights some of the
important uses that improve our lives.
Through its wide range of applications, radiation processing helps to keep us safe and healthy,
supports our economies and helps to protect the global environment.
Though largely unknown by the public, radiation processing or
‘irradiation’ touches everyone’s life. If you suer an injury or illness, then
it is highly likely that you will be treated with wound care products or
other medical supplies that have been sterilised by irradiation. Most
vehicles contain wires and cables that have been treated with radiation
to keep you safe during your journey. Radiation processing helps to
make food safer, protects crops and helps secure international trade
of plant products. Environmental applications of irradiation such as the
treatment of ue gas, waste water and biowaste might soon provide
new ways of improving the quality of air and water and keeping us safe.
This document summarises the uses and importance of radiation
processing and highlights how these technologies have a positive
impact on the daily lives of the world’s population. The regional
summaries provide an insight into how radiation processing delivers
benets to dierent parts of the world.
LARGE SCALE COMMERCIAL USE
These are uses of irradiation that can be found at industrial
sites around the world. High volumes of product and
material are processed on a commercial scale.
Sterilisation of medical products, laboratory and
cleanroom consumables
Radiation processing is used to sterilise over 40% of
single use medical supplies so that patients have a lower
risk of infection during surgery or medical treatment.
Demand continues to grow with an increasing global
population, greater access to healthcare and extended
life expectancy. Products sterilised with irradiation range
from simple gauze dressings to complex medical devices
containing drugs and therapeutics. Products include
surgical gloves, wound care products, implants such
as hip joints, pre-lled syringes and blood collection
tubes. Irradiation also helps medical and scientic
manufacturing and research. Laboratory and cleanroom
consumables such as petri dishes or protective
equipment are also sterilised with irradiation.
Improvement of polymers
Irradiation of polymers results in a variety of reactions
including crosslinking, polymerisation, grafting or
degradation. These reactions will result in changes in the
characteristics and performance of synthetic polymers
that will make them, for example, more resistant to high
temperatures, wear and chemicals, or easier to process
further. These polymers can then be used safely in
demanding conditions that they would otherwise not
be able to withstand.
Modication of polymer products is the largest volume
application of irradiation. They are used in a huge range
of high-performance products and materials. Examples
include: insulation for wires and cables used in the
automotive, rail or aerospace industry; pipes and tubing
used in water and gas supply; foams, heat-shrinkables
lms or tubes, moulded parts and composite materials
used in construction and in many other industries.
Sterilisation of packaging
Many dierent types of packaging material are
decontaminated or sterilised using radiation processing.
Irradiation ensures that packaging is free from
microorganisms that could otherwise contaminate
the product that they will contain. The food and drink
industry uses irradiation to treat cartons, bottles,
bags, lids and caps because the technology leaves no
residues. The pharmaceutical, medical and cosmetics
industries also use radiation processing of packaging to
ensure the safety of their products.
Pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food ingredients
Good Manufacturing Practises require the use of
microbiologically clean ingredients to ensure the quality
and safety of nal products. The food industry uses
irradiated spices, herbs and dehydrated vegetables for
this purpose and to ensure optimal aromatic quality.
A wide range of ingredients used in the pharmaceutical
and cosmetic manufacturing are also irradiated to
replace or reduce the need for chemical preservatives.
SUBSTANTIAL COMMERCIAL USE
These are uses of irradiation that are carried out on a more
regional commercial or semi-commercial basis. Some uses
are well-established and other are now seeing growth.
Food irradiation
Many international organisations have conrmed that
food treated by irradiation poses no toxicological,
microbiological or nutritional problem. The many
applications include sprouting inhibition (bulbs and
tubers), inactivation of parasites (meat, fresh-cut salads),
insect control (pulses, cereals, dry sh), inactivation
of pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella or E. coli
(seafood, meat and poultry whether refrigerated or
frozen) and shelf-life extension (ready-to-eat meals,
some fruit and vegetables). Food irradiation thus
contributes to food safety by reducing foodborne
poisoning and to food security by reducing post-harvest
losses. The extent to which food irradiation is used
greatly varies from one country to another due to the
lack of harmonisation in food irradiation regulations.
Introduction
The important contributions made by radiation processing
Summary of uses of radiation processing
SOCIAL
Provides protection
against disease and illness
Makes our everyday
products safer to use
ECONOMIC
A critical process for some
of the world largest industries
Creates trade, employment
and protects livelihoods
ENVIRONMENTAL
Cleaner air and water and reduced
use of harmful chemicals
Re-use of waste for
useful purposes
Research into radiation
processing continues to
develop applications that
will provide more benets
for future generations.
Some of the regional
applications of radiation
processing are detailed
in the later chapters.
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The general principle is to expose products to the radiation
eld in a controlled manner, typically on a continuous conveyor
system that carries the product into a concrete bunker for
irradiation. The concrete bunker ensures that personnel are
shielded from the radiation at every stage of the process.
Some developing applications, such as the treatment of
gas or liquids, will have a dierent system of applying the
irradiation but the concept of passing the material by a source
of radiation remains unchanged. Low energy and laboratory
scale irradiation systems generally comprise a shield that is a
component of the machine.
The largest dierence is with the sources of radiation that
fall into three categories: gamma, electron beam (e-beam)
and X-ray. Details of these three technologies can be found
in factsheets available from the International Irradiation
Association website iiaglobal.com
The radiation processing industry, regardless of technology,
must comply with stringent regulations and has an exemplary
safety record.
Summary of uses of radiation processing
Phytosanitary treatment
Phytosanitary measures are used in the international
trade of fresh commodities to prevent spread of non-
native insects that could cause huge losses for the
agriculture of the importing countries. Increasingly,
irradiation is being used as one of the phytosanitary
methods to replace banned or controversial pesticides
such as fenthion or to provide fresh products of a better
quality than when treated with alternative phytosanitary
measures such as cold or heat treatment.
Treatment of waste water
Radiation processing is used to clean industrial
waste water from the textile industry. Textile dyeing
accounts for a fth of all industrial wastewater pollution
generated worldwide. Beside its chemical cleansing
eects, irradiation also has the capability to dissociate
biologically active organic pollutants.
Wood plastic composites
It is possible to make wooden ooring more resistant
to abrasion and wear by injecting liquid monomers
into the wood and solidifying them by radiation
polymerisation. The same technique is used to
consolidate wooden artifacts.
Improvement of microelectronics
Radiation hardening is the process of making electronic
components and circuits resistant to damage or
malfunction caused by high levels of ionising radiation
in outer space and high-altitude ights, and within
nuclear reactors and particle accelerators.
Colouration of gemstones
Some gemstones are irradiated to change their colour
in order to give them a higher commercial value. Topaz
is the most irradiated as it turns from orange to blue
after exposure to radiation.
COMMON USE IN INSTITUTES AND
LABORATORIES AROUND THE WORLD
These are uses of irradiation that are common but carried
out by specialised organisations for the benets that the
use of irradiation provides to the community rather than
for commercial purposes.
Blood components irradiation
Irradiation of blood components is almost exclusively
used to prevent graft versus host disease (TA-GvHD)
that is a rare but usually fatal complication of blood
transfusions. This disease occurs when a patient
is incapable of mounting an immune response
against lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, in
the transfused blood that attack the patient’s tissues.
Irradiation damages the DNA of the blood components
and thus stops them attacking the patient.
Tissue banks
Tissue substitutes are required in several clinical
conditions for treatment of injured and diseased tissues.
Tissues such as bone, skin, amniotic membrane and
other soft tissues obtained from a human donor can
be used for repair or reconstruction of the injured part
of the body and constitute an excellent alternative to
autografts. However, major concern with the use of
allografts is the risk of infectious disease transmission.
Sterilisation of tissue allografts by irradiation is widely
used to make them safe for clinical use.
Sterile Insect Technique
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) involves the mass
rearing and sterilisation by irradiation of male insect
pests. When these insects are released there is no
ospring when they mate with wild females, which
results in a decline of the pest population. This process
has been successfully used to control fruit ies that
cause major losses in fruit and vegetable production
and prevent exports; tsetse ies that feed on blood
and transmit parasites; and screwworm ies that cause
bacterial infections.
Preservation of cultural heritage
Many artefacts (wooden objects, parchments, textiles
and leather artefacts) are under attack from insects,
fungi and bacteria while stored in religious buildings,
museums and archives. Irradiation can kill these
organisms with minimal eect on wood, paints, pigments
and varnishes. Most famously, irradiation was used to
disinfect the mummy of pharaoh Ramses II in 1977.
Induced mutation for plant improvement
Very low doses of irradiation accelerate the frequency of
mutations in plant materials. The changes that result can
be selected to develop new crop varieties with improved
characteristics such as higher productivity, resistance to
draught, salt or diseases, or better nutritional quality.
Irradiation thus contributes to food security and better
nutrition.
NEW POTENTIAL USES UNDER
DEVELOPMENT
These are uses of irradiation that are being developed
or currently applied at a low level but might emerge as
important applications in the future.
Treatment of gaseous euents
Irradiation of ue gas from coal red power plants
removes high levels, typically 85-90%, of nitrogen and
sulphur oxide pollutants. The technology can also be
applied to municipal waste incinerators. Radiation
processing is used to reduce pollution and improve the
safety of gaseous and liquid euents and solid waste.
Treatment of solid waste
Sewage sludge in liquid or solid form can be treated with
irradiation to prevent microbes and viruses spreading
into the environment before it is sent for safe disposal.
The treated product can be used as organic fertiliser.
Treatment of hazardous biowaste
Research has demonstrated that irradiation is eective
to render biowaste from hospitals or leftovers from
international ight catering safe before disposal. While
the economic feasibility still needs to be established, the
increased sensitivity to virus spread might change the
perspective.
Introduction to radiation processing technologies
Over that last 70 years the radiation processing industry has
developed various technologies that are now well established to
irradiate materials and product safely and eciently.
76
Image showing radioactive
Cobalt-60 used within a
gamma radiation processing
facility.
Image courtesy of IBA Industrial www.iba-industrial.com
Image showing an e-beam
radiation processing facility.
The boxes of product to be
treated are transferred on
a conveyor system under
the radiation eld that is
generated by the e-beam
accelerator.
Image courtesy of STERIS AST steris-ast.com
China China
Radiation processing is very
well established in China and
its population has beneted
signicantly from various
irradiation applications for
many years.
The initial focus of irradiation in China was applications
in food preservation, agriculture and modication of
polymers used in industry. Today, China has the world’s
largest number of gamma irradiators and accelerators
in operation and its activities within the eld are broad,
continue to develop and have an important economic
impact. China is also at the forefront of innovation and
the development of new applications that make an
import positive contribution to the environment.
More than 110 commercial scale gamma irradiators
are in operation in China and these are used for most
of the traditional high-volume processing applications
such as sterilisation of medical devices. China is by far
the country that treats the largest volume and variety of
foods with irradiation. Approximately one million tons
of food are irradiated annually
(1)
including spices, garlic,
meat and sh products.
Additionally, over 600 electron accelerators are in
operation for radiation processing in China. These
machines are mainly used for polymer modication,
particularly the cross linking of wires and cables, but
also for disinfection, sterilisation and increasingly food
irradiation. China is the world’s largest producer of
accelerators and this is an area of fast growth with
innovations in X-ray and low energy beam applications.
Both gamma and electron irradiation technologies are
used to enable the distribution of safe food products,
to make critical patient wellbeing possible and to
contribute to the production of safe and durable
material and products. All these irradiation applications
have far reaching and positive benets for the
population of China.
China is also the largest user and international supplier
of electron accelerators used for large scale security
screening of cargo. Over 900 inspection systems are
used in various Chinese ports to inspect large shipping
containers and vehicles to ensure the safety of goods
being imported and exported.
China is a producer of Cobalt-60 used in radiation
processing and is home to suppliers of gamma
irradiators. These products are used domestically and
are exported to overseas markets where they make a
positive economic impact on these organisations, their
supply chain and their employees.
China used irradiation to good eect in their response
to the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic resulted in a
shortage of necessary personal protective equipment
(PPE) so the Chinese Government introduced emergency
rules allowing the use of irradiation to sterilise medical
disposable protective clothing. By mid-2020, nearly
80 Chinese companies had used gamma and e-beam
irradiation to sterilise 1.1 billion pieces of medical
disposable protective clothing, 3 million pieces of
isolation clothing, more than 10 million pairs of medical
gloves and a large volume of other medical equipment
required for the ght against COVID-19. The fast cycle
time of irradiation, compared with EtO gas sterilisation
that would normally have been used, won precious time
and enabled the early treatment of many patients.
On 5
th
June 2020, ‘World Environment Day’, seven
e-beam irradiators commenced operation in China
for the treatment of industrial wastewater. This is the
world’s largest such facility with an irradiation treatment
capacity of 30,000,000 litres of wastewater per day.
The irradiation treatment has several environmental
chemistry and cleansing benets resulting in up to
70% re-use of the wastewater which can annually save
4,500,000,000 litres of water and reduce chemical
oxygen demand by 1,000 tons.
Electron beam irradiation technology is particularly
suitable for the treatment of wastewater from printing,
dyeing, paper and chemical industries. In China the
technology is being expanded into other applications
such as the management of antibiotic bacterial residues,
disinfection and sterilisation of hospital wastewater,
preservation of agricultural products and the treatment
of medical waste, landll leachate and pharmaceutical
wastewater. This will result in further environmental
benets through pollution control and re-use.
China has embraced radiation processing to support the
wellbeing of its population and economy. Development
continues through scientic research and commercial
collaboration initiatives which ensure that China takes
full advantage of the benecial uses of irradiation
technologies to strengthen its economy, improve the
lives of its people and to reduce pollution thereby
helping the environment.
(1) The Business and Science of Radiation processing in 2019, International Irradiation Association, September 2019
98
Irradiation
technologies
in China
Applications
Impact
Medical device
sterilisation
Food treatment
including response
to COVID-19
over 1 million tons
per year
Material improvement
particularly wire & cable
Wastewater treatment
enabling 70% re-use
of wastewater
SAFE
SAFE
HIGH QUALITY
ENVIRONMENTAL
BENEFITS
healthcare products
for patient wellbeing
food products for
human health
material for safe and
robust products
for a better world
On-going research
new environmental
applications
GAMMA
>110
facilities
E-BEAM
>600
facilities
Gamma, e-beam and X-ray are all used in Europe and
the region has a long history of innovation leading
to new applications that result in signicant social,
economic and environmental benets.
The largest application of gamma irradiation in Europe
is the sterilisation of medical devices. With an aging
population of about 600 million (excluding European
Russia) and a high health expenditure per capita,
European demand for medical devices is extremely high.
In addition to the important health benet of patients
receiving treatment with reduced risk of infection, there
is also an important economic contribution with the
medical device industry providing €110 billion in sales
and 675,000 jobs in Europe
(1)
. The EU is a net exporter
in this sector
(1)
with some medical device manufacturers
choosing to locate their irradiation sterilisation facilities
in Europe.
Radiation processing using e-beam is widely used
throughout Europe, particularly for the modication
and improvement of plastics that can then be used in
major industries including automotive, wire and cable,
and electronics. Sterilisation of medical devices using
e-beam irradiation is currently more widely adopted
in Europe than in other parts of the world. Low energy
e-beam is increasingly being used in Europe to reduce
the bioburden on the surface of packaging material that
can then enter cleanroom manufacturing facilities used
in medical product manufacturing. The world’s rst X-ray
irradiator commissioned for sterilisation of medical
devices was supplied by a European manufacturer and is
still in use by a European irradiation service provider.
Some of Europe’s cultural heritage is also protected by
irradiation. Many artefacts under attack from insects and
microorganisms are preserved by disinfestation using
irradiation as a safe alternative to fumigation or the use
of liquid chemicals.
European research continues to develop important
new irradiation applications resulting in, for example:
more durable heart valves; pathogen resistant cereal
grain; the recycling of polymer waste; and the treatment
of wastewater, sludge and gas euents. Much of this
research has progressed to pilot plants and commercial
realisation that benets people worldwide.
Europe leads the way in many areas of radiation
processing. It is the home of the International Atomic
Energy Agency, a centre of excellence for radiation
processing, and some of the largest users and suppliers
of radiation processing technology. European demand
for radiation processing continues to grow and the
people and economies of the region continue to benet
from its important socio-economic contributions.
MIDDLE EAST & AFRICA
The number of commercial radiation processing facilities
in this region that sterilise medical devices and treat
food is relatively small. However, irradiation and nuclear
techniques are used to some extent for the benet of
the region.
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) has been introduced to
Africa to help control insect pests. The benets of using
the technology include: a signicant reduction in crop and
livestock production losses; protection of the horticultural
and livestock industries through prevention of pest
introductions; providing conditions for commodity exports
to high value markets without quarantine restrictions;
protecting and creating jobs; signicant reduction in
production and human health costs; and environmental
protection through a reduced use of insecticides
(1)
.
SIT promises also to be eective in combatting malaria-
transmitting mosquitoes and the diseases they carry
(2)
.
There were an estimated 228 million cases of malaria in
2018, and the estimated number of malaria deaths stood at
405,000. In 2018, the WHO African Region was home to
93% of malaria cases and 94% of malaria deaths
(3)
.
Other irradiation and nuclear techniques are employed
in the region to address issues of poor soil fertility in
drought prone areas that result in low crop yield. These
technologies have enabled the production of drought
and heat tolerant crops and improved the use of water
resulting in increased crop yields, self-suciency and much
improved farmer livelihoods.
RUSSIA
Russia has a long history of researching irradiation
technology and there are several organisations that
operate facilities and produce e-beam equipment that is
supplied locally and internationally. In recent years, the
commercialisation of radiation processing, particularly
using e-beam, has developed rapidly with investment in
new facilities and applications.
Most standard applications are undertaken, including the
treatment of polymers, cable, electronics and packaging.
The demand for irradiation sterilisation of medical devices
and pharmaceutical products is growing with the need
to meet international standards and the requirements
of foreign companies that manufacture in Russia. Herbs
and spices are also treated and the use of irradiation
technology for treating other foods is under development.
Russia is also a major supplier of Cobalt-60 that is used
in radiation processing. Large volumes of this material
are exported, supporting employment, the economy and
helping industry meet medical device sterilisation needs
internationally.
Europe Middle East & Africa, and Russia
1110
(1) International Atomic Energy Agency, Sterile insect technique,
https://www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique
(2) International Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear technology and applications/
Health/Infectious diseases/Malaria, https://www.iaea.org/topics/malaria
(3) World Health Organisation, Health topics, Malaria,
https://www.who.int/health-topics/malaria#tab=tab_1
All European countries benet
from radiation processing.
Irradiation technologies are
a major contributor to the
wellbeing of its population and
the ability of its manufactures
to produce safe high-quality
products.
(1) https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/medical-devices_en
Japan & South Korea
Japan and South Korea both have a long history of developing and
growing applications of irradiation. Today irradiation technology is
used to support their major industries, particularly the automobile and
electronics industries, by enabling the production of robust products at
reduced cost without the use of chemicals. The technology generates
several billion USD revenue annually, provides large scale employment
and is expected to grow as demand from industry increases.
1312
LOW COST
POLYMER
MATERIAL
THERMAL
MECHANICAL
CHEMICAL
Environmentally friendly
alternative to chemical processing
RADIATION PROCESSING
Improved properties
High performance polymers
Easier to process materials
Safe and reliable products
JAPAN
Commercial applications of radiation processing have
been developed in Japan since the 1950s and the
country continues to be in the forefront of innovation
in radiation chemistry. Irradiation applications rapidly
expanded into new areas of crosslinking plastic foams
and rubber tyre components in support of the
Japanese automotive industry. There are now over
300 accelerators performing commercial scale polymer
modication by irradiation in Japan.
Sterilisation of medical devices using irradiation
is well established with Japanese manufacturers
constructing in-house gamma irradiators to enable
them to meet demand. Since 2000, several medical
device manufacturers have started to adopt electron
accelerators to meet their irradiation needs.
In Japan new applications continue to be developed
such as radiation degradation of PTFE for making ultra-
ne powders and the use of inline low energy electrons
for the sterilisation of packaging in aseptic processing.
SOUTH KOREA
Electron accelerators were introduced into South
Korea during the 1970s, rstly for research and later
for insulated wire and cable production. There are
currently over 60 electron accelerators in commercial
use in South Korean industries, mainly for purposes
such as, productions of wires, cables, thermo-shrinkable
materials, foam sheets, coating, curing of materials,
sterilisation of medical products and environmental
protection.
The demand for irradiation crosslinking of wire and
cable has grown steadily in South Korea since 1985.
Major markets include wiring for vehicles and process
control instruments that require superior performance
and mechanical properties. Irradiation has the benet
that it does not require the use of peroxide or heat.
The tyre industry benets from irradiation by pre-
curing components prior to assembly of the tyre. The
irradiation does not add signicant improvement in
physical properties of the nal tyre but the process does
simplify manufacturing and reduced material costs.
Irradiation is widely used in South Korea in the
production of foam products. Irradiation increases the
viscosity of the molten polymer material making it more
dicult for the gaseous products from the foaming
agent to escape from the melt. This results in large
volume expansion and a uniform foam size.
The rst South Korean gamma irradiator was installed
as a training facility and to demonstrate the sterilisation
of medical products. The technology is now used more
widely in South Korea for the commercial sterilisation
of medical products such as surgical gloves, needles,
bandages and blood bags. There is a growing demand
for medical product sterilisation as well as the treatment
of traditional medicinal herbs and food products and
the qualication of equipment to be used in nuclear
power plants.
Japan & South Korea
Latin America makes up 23% of the world’s arable
land and is responsible for 13% of global agricultural
production and 16% of global agricultural exports.
Approximately 25 commercial scale or semi-commercial
irradiators operate in Latin America and play a signicant
role in ensuring the safety and sustainability of these
agricultural food products and supporting the economy
by enabling trade and export.
Latin America is one of the leading food producing
regions but it is geographically large, has a population of
approximately 650 million people and is having to deal
with major social challenges including extreme poverty
and hunger. There are signicant issues with distribution
and access to food, particularly for the rural population.
Shelf life extension and improved safety of food products
through irradiation treatment has had a signicant
social impact and made an important contribution to
addressing these issues and reducing food waste.
Phytosanitary irradiation is an important process
that enables food products to be exported from Latin
America. Mexico is leading the way with the irradiation
of large volumes of fruit such as mangoes, various citrus
fruits, guava and peppers. After irradiation, these fruits
can be exported to the USA without alternative treatment
such as harmful gas treatment or other post-harvest
quarantine measures. In addition to the environmental
benet, this process enables trade that is economically
important and has a positive social impact for farmers,
employment and the surrounding industries.
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) has been adopted
and highly eective in Latin America in reducing the
mosquito population that spreads Dengue, Zika and
Chikungunya diseases.
There are approximately 45 additional small-scale
irradiators in Latin America that are used in research
of irradiation technologies and applications. This
research has resulted in the development of important
new applications including its use in the production of
biomaterials for skin replacement of burn victims and
the improvement of plant species to make them more
resistant to climate changes.
Argentina contributes to the supply of Cobalt-60 used
in radiation processing. This material is used locally
and exported to support the irradiation industry and its
important applications.
Safety and sustainability of food are a major priority for
Latin America. Irradiation technology plays a critical role
in addressing these issues, supporting the economy of
the region and the wellbeing of its population.
1514
India was an early adopter of irradiation
technology, particularly gamma irradiation,
by establishing demonstration and research
facilities for studying medical device
sterilisation, microbial decontamination
of spices and seasonings, preservation of
agricultural products and fresh produce and
the decontamination of sludge.
Since the 1970s, radiation processing has become increasingly popular in India
with investment in facilities and government initiatives.
The sterilisation of medical devices using gamma irradiation is well established
in India with some manufacturers operating their own in-house irradiators.
Other gamma irradiators are operated as multi-purpose service centres that
typically treat single-use medical items and spices. This is also the case in
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka where in-house and service irradiators
treat similar products.
Indian Government policy is encouraging private entrepreneurs to establish
large gamma and e-beam radiation processing facilities. 22 large scale gamma
irradiators have been commissioned in India since 2000. Additionally, 15 e-beam
irradiators have been installed since 2015, all but one are used to improve the
insulation of wire and cable and one is used to modify the colour of diamonds.
Two further e-beam facilities are under construction and expect to be operational
by the end of 2020 for irradiation treatment of medical products and food
packaging.
Food irradiation is developing in the region and there are moves to establish
public-private partnerships to invest in further irradiation facilities for food
preservation. The objective is to use irradiation to reduce spoilage of some
fruit, vegetable and other horticultural produce. Food safety issues can also be
addressed with irradiation and there is interest in many applications, for example
the treatment of ingredients for convenience foods for which the demand is
growing in the region.
Phytosanitary irradiation is now being used eectively to enable the export of
mangoes from India to the USA. The irradiation process ensures that no invasive
insect pests will reproduce when they reach their destination.
Dog chews, a treat for pet dogs made from rawhide, are commonly manufactured
and irradiated in India. Irradiation achieves microbial decontamination so that
owners and their pets can safety handle the treat.
In 2019 a dry sewage sludge gamma irradiator was commissioned in Ahmedabad,
India. This fully automated irradiator processes 100 tons of sludge every day
to eliminate its high pathogenic microbial load. The hygienised sludge is then
inoculated with useful bacteria to provide a value-added bio-fertilizer.
While indigenous e-beam accelerator technology is still to be made available, India
is a major producer of Cobalt-60 that is used in radiation processing. Most of this
is used to meet local demand from gamma irradiators but some surplus volume
is occasionally exported to meet international demand. India is also home of
gamma irradiator suppliers that serve both the local and export markets.
Latin America South Asia
Latin America benets from locally sterilised medical devices that have
been treated with irradiation along with pharmaceutical, veterinary,
agricultural and polymer products. The treatment of food products is a
highly important irradiation application in the region.
The ‘Radura’ is
the international
symbol indicating
that a food product
has been irradiated
SOUTH EAST ASIA
In Thailand, the government established an irradiation
centre to explore the potential of radiation processing,
particularly for treatment of food. Irradiation was
developed to improve the microbiological safety of
naem, a popular and typically Thai fermented sausage,
that can otherwise be responsible for severe food
poisoning. Similarly, in Vietnam, the government
constructed demonstration facilities during the 1990s
for the irradiation of food. This industry has now been
expanded by several privately owned companies using
gamma and e-beam irradiation for the treatment of
frozen and dry sh products for safety and preservation
purposes as well as spices, medicinal herbs and
medical devices.
Vietnam is developing irradiation technology further
to enable it to become a major exporter of fresh fruit
and vegetables. Fruits that were previously barred from
export for biosecurity reason can now be treated with
irradiation as a phytosanitary measure. In 2019 more
than 8,000 tons of dragon fruit, longan, mangoes and
other fruit were exported to USA, Australia and New
Zealand. Similarly, small volumes of Thai tropical fruit
such as mangosteens are exported to the USA after
being irradiated to meet quarantine requirements.
In the early 2000s, many foreign medical device
manufacturers from Europe, Japan and the USA
started establishing production sites in Thailand. These
manufacturers required sterilisation facilities and this
local demand was met by the construction of several
large radiation processing centres. These in turn
attracted more medical device manufacturer to the
region and the radiation processing facilities now treat a
wide range of products including food, pharmaceutical
and cosmetic ingredients and packaging.
The medical device manufacturing sector and the
radiation processing industry are often symbiotic.
Malaysia, a country producing natural latex, has seen
growth in both the latex and the radiation processing
industries over the last twenty years since a major glove
manufacturer established a gamma irradiator. The
country is now the world’s largest producer of medical
gloves and there are several companies using gamma,
e-beam and X-ray irradiation for the treatment of latex
products, to improve polymers used in wires, cables and
tyres as well as several other applications.
In Singapore, a large U.S. medical device manufacturer
has been operating a gamma irradiator to sterilise its
products for more than thirty years.
Thailand is a major international hub for the trade and
manufacturing of gemstones. Two dedicated e-beam
irradiators, one private and one public, irradiate various
kinds of gemstones to modify their colour, thereby
increasing their commercial value.
1716
AUSTRALASIA
Gamma irradiation was established in Australia in the
1950s to stop the spread of anthrax, a potentially deadly
bacteria, in wool for export. Today there are multiple
gamma irradiators and an X-ray facility in Australia,
primarily used for the sterilisation of medical items.
There is one irradiator in New Zealand for the treatment
of vaccines.
Irradiation is a valuable tool for enforcing the strict
biosecurity requirements of both Australia and New
Zealand that are two of the few countries that remain
free from the world’s most severe pests and diseases.
From grain imported to feed the horses during the
Sydney Olympics to wooden souvenirs brought in by
tourists, or seeds imported to feed domestic birds,
irradiation helps to protect the unique ora, fauna and
agriculture of these countries.
After the ban on several pesticides used for
phytosanitary purpose, Australia adopted irradiation of
fresh fruit and vegetables for export to New Zealand,
Vietnam and other countries as well as for interstate
commerce between Queensland and areas that are free
from the fruit y pest.
Australia pioneered the treatment of beehive equipment.
American foulbrood is a honeybee disease caused by
bacteria that results in serious beehive and economic
losses to beekeepers. When an outbreak occurred
in 1982, rather than burn the hives, it was found
that gamma irradiation was eective in eliminating
the pathogens and insects from the contaminated
equipment. The method has since been used outside
Australia.
South East Asia & Australasia South East Asia & Australasia
South East Asia and Australasia has a long and varied history in radiation
processing that is now well developed and routinely used for many
benecial applications. The technologies have brought international
business into the region and enabled countries to make the best of their
resources. The health and wealth of the populations, the safety and
quality of products and the level of international trade have all beneted
from the application of irradiation.
USA
Peru
South Africa
Australia
Indonesia
Pakistan
India
Thailand
Vietnam
New Zealand
Mexico
GLOBAL TRADE OF IRRADIATED FRESH PRODUCE
Most of the trade in fresh produce irradiated for phytosanitary purposes is between the Americas,
Asia, Australia and New Zealand with the United States of America being the greater importer.
Source: Phytosanitary Irradiation Platform psipglobal.org
In 2019 the global volume of fresh produce irradiated for phytosanitary purposes is estimated at 47,000 tons.
Traded volumes have increased almost ten-fold since 2007.
50 000
45 000
40 000
35 000
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
-
GLOBAL TRADE (tons)
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
USA & Canada USA & Canada
SOCIAL
Healthcare
• Sterilisation critical in healthcare, wound-care, surgery etc.
• Medical isotopes used in diagnosis and treatment of patients
Safety
• Safer material used in consumer products and industry
• Improved food safety and reduced food bourne illness
Security
• Protecting borders by cargo screening using irradiation
• Protecting government agencies by irradiation of post
Supports
Irradiation supports multi-billion dollar industries and sectors
Protects
Competitive position and international trade of U.S. and
Canadian companies
Employs
Jobs created by users, suppliers, manufacturers and
indirect industries
USA & Canada is world’s largest user and supplier of irradiation technology
ECONOMIC
USD
156 billion
Value of U.S. medical
device market
Expected
growth by
2023
USD
208 billion
USD
43 billion
million
2
EXPORTS:
JOBS:
MEDICAL DEVICE MARKET
of radiation
processing volume
in the USA
Sterilisation of single use
medical devices represents
approximately
80
%
BENEFITS & CONTRIBUTION
Radiation processing makes an
important and signicant positive
socio-economic contribution in
both the USA and Canada.
The sterilisation of single use medical devices represents
approximately 80% of radiation processing volume
in the USA
(1)
. The United States remains the largest
medical device market in the world, valued at USD156
billion, representing 40% of the global medical device
market in 2017. U.S. exports of medical devices in key
product categories identied by the U.S. Department of
Commerce exceeded USD43 billion in 2018. The industry
includes almost 2 million jobs in the U.S., including both
direct and indirect employment
(2)
.
The need for sterile and safe medical devices will
continue to grow in USA and Canada as the population
increases, there is earlier detection of disease and life
expectancy is extended. By 2023, the U.S. medical device
market is expected to grow to a value of USD208 billion
(2)
.
Most medical devices sterilised by radiation processing
are treated by gamma irradiation. There are currently
51 gamma irradiators located at 44 sites within the
USA and together they sterilise approximately 200
million cubic feet of product annually
(1)
. Most of these
facilities are operated by companies oering a contract
irradiation service and a few are used in-house by large
North American medical device companies that sterilise
their own product prior to sale globally.
Gamma irradiation uses Cobalt-60 that is produced
in nuclear reactors that already supply electricity and
contribute to clean air and long term climate change
goals. This Cobalt-60 is also used in medical therapy,
particularly the treatment of cancer and complex brain
conditions. More than 50% of the world’s Cobalt-60 is
produced in reactors in Canada and up to 80% of the
world’s Cobalt-60 sealed sources are manufactured in
Canada. Signicant investment continues to be made in
these infrastructures to ensure long term reliable supply
as demand for Cobalt-60 increases.
Other products that benet from radiation processing in
the USA and Canada include laboratory and cleanroom
equipment, pharmaceutical products, packaging used by
the healthcare and food industries, and some approved
food and food ingredients. Many of these products are
treated using high energy e-beam (5-10 MeV) and there
are approximately 40 of these machines in operation in
U.S. and Canada. About half of these are operated by
contract irradiation service providers and approximately
35% are operated for in-house product sterilisation.
The remaining 15% are used for the production of
medical radioisotopes, cargo screening and research.
The production of medical radioisotopes secures the
reliable domestic supply of diagnostic testing and
treatment material for U.S. and Canadian patients.
Cargo screening helps ensure border security with the
use of X-rays to inspect large shipping containers.
In October 2001, the infectious disease anthrax was
found in mail sent to several news agencies and the
oces of two United States Senators
(3)
. Since then, one
high energy e-beam facility has been dedicated to use
by the U.S. government for irradiation of post addressed
to certain government agencies to ensure that packages
and letters do not contain harmful bacteria.
There are many medium energy e-beams (1-5 MeV) in
operation in North America. Almost all are in-house
facilities with approximately half used for heat shrink
and material science, a third used in the wire and cable
industry and the balance used for sterilisation and
research.
There is currently a high level of interest from the
healthcare industry and regulators in further developing
X-ray technology for use in medical product sterilisation.
Greater investment in this technology is now being
made in USA and Canada and X-ray irradiation is
expected to evolve over the coming years. This will
ensure that irradiation maintains its position as a critical
technology for healthcare.
Other new applications are being studied and
universities and research organisations are highly
engaged in developing irradiation technologies. This
includes government associated facilities researching
fundamental science, the development of advanced
materials and consumer product, and other new
irradiation solutions that benet our populations
and environment.
The USA and Canada are not only the world’s largest
users of radiation processing but are also the homes
of some of the largest suppliers of this technology
to the global irradiation industries. This results in
signicant economic contribution, job creation and the
knowledge that it supports critical industries. Radiation
processing is robust, the technologies and applications
are developing, and U.S. and Canadian suppliers are
committed to this industry for the long term.
Radiation processing is critical to our healthcare
industries and to the wellbeing of millions of North
Americans. The contribution to multibillion-dollar
economic sectors will continue; the competitive
position of North Americas highly regarded medical
device companies will be maintained; and innovation,
international trade and employment numbers will
all grow.
(1) Non-Radioisotopic Alternative Technologies White Paper, September 2019, U.S. Department of Homeland Security
(2) Medical Technology Spotlight, Medical Technology in the United States, selectusa.gov
(3) Radtown, Mail Irradiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1918
American Nuclear Society
ANS, USA | ans.org
Asociación Latinoamericana de
Tecnologías de la Irradiación
ALATI, Latin America
| alati.la
Canadian Nuclear Isotope Council
CNIC, Canada
| canadianisotopes.ca
China Isotope & Radiation Association
CIRA, China
| cira.net.cn
National Association for Application of
Radioisotopes and Radiation in Industry
NAARRI, India
| naarri.com
Panel on Gamma & Electron Irradiation
UK
| irradiationpanel.org
INTERNATIONAL
IRRADIATION
ASSOCIATION
iiaglobal.com